Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period,during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought",which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments. Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period,elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching,an ancient compendium of divination,which dates back to at least 672 BCE.
Mohism or Moism was an ancient Chinese philosophy of ethics and logic,rational thought,and scientific technology developed by the scholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi,embodied in an eponymous book:the Mozi. Among its major ethical tenets were altruism and a universal,unbiased respect and concern for all people regardless of relations or affiliations. The ideology also stressed the virtues of austerity and utilitarianism.
Mozi,personal name Mo Di,was a Chinese philosopher,logician,and founder of the Mohist school of thought,making him one of the most important figures of the Warring States period. Alongside Confucianism,Mohism became the most prominent,organized schools of the Hundred Schools of Thought throughout the period. The Mozi is an anthology of writings traditionally attributed to Mozi and to his followers.
The School of Names,or School of Forms and Names,is a school of thought in Chinese philosophy that grew out of Mohist logic. Sometimes termed Logicians or Sophists modernly,Han scholars used it in reference to figures earlier termed Disputers in the Zhuangzi,as a view seemingly dating back to the Warring States period. Rather than a unified movement like the Mohists,it represents a social category of early linguistic debaters. Some arguments in later Mohist texts would appear directed at their kind of debates. Figures associated with it include Deng Xi,Yin Wen,Hui Shi,and Gongsun Long. A Three Kingdoms era figure,Xu Gan,is relevant for discussions of names and realities,but was more Confucian and less relativist.
Fajia,or the School of fa,often translated as Legalism,is a school of mainly Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy. Often interpreted in the West along realist lines,its members variously contributed to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire,and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes Guan Zhong as forefather of the Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers Li Kui and Shang Yang,and more Daoistic figures Shen Buhai and Shen Dao,with the late Han Feizi drawing on both. Later centuries took Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Li Si. Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei,Shen Buhai and Shang Yang,but the Qin to Tang were more characterized by their traditions.
The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophies and schools that flourished during the late Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period. The term was not used to describe these different philosophies until Confucianism,Mohism,and Legalism were created. The era in which they flourished was one of turbulence in China,fraught with chaos and mass militarization,but where Chinese philosophy was developed and patronized by competing bureaucracies. This phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought.
Shen Buhai was a Chinese statesman,reformer and diplomat. According to the Shiji,Shen Buhai served served as Chancellor of the Hann state under Marquis Zhao of Han,for around fifteen years to his natural death in office in 337 BC,ordering it's government and doctrines emphasizing administrate technique (shu). A contemporary of syncretist Shi Jiao and Shang Yang,Shen was born in the State of Zheng,and was likely a minor official there. After Han had completed the conquest and division of Zheng and Wei in 376 BC,Shen rose up in the ranks of the Han officialdom,reforming it's administration and military defenses about only a half century after it's founding.
Shen Dao was a mid Warring states period Chinese philosopher and writer. Noteworthy as a predecessor to both Han Fei and Daoism,his remaining fragments are the most substantial of any Jixia Academy scholar,and may have been well known. Early remembered modernly for his influence on the Han Feizi with regards the concept of shi,most of his work would appear to have concerned the concept of fa commonly shared by others that the Han Confucian archivists classified as "Legalist".
Xunzi,born Xun Kuang,was a Chinese philosopher of Confucianism during the late Warring States period. After his predecessors Confucius and Mencius,Xunzi is often ranked as the third great Confucian philosopher of antiquity. By his time,Confucianism had suffered considerable criticism from Taoist and Mohist thinkers,and Xunzi is traditionally regarded as a synthesizer of these traditions with earlier Confucian thought. The result was a thorough and cohesive revision of Confucianism,which was crucial to the philosophy's ability to flourish in the Han dynasty and throughout the later history of East Asia. His works were compiled in the eponymous Xunzi,and survive in excellent condition. Unlike other ancient compilations,his authorship of these texts is generally secure,though it is likely that Western Han dynasty historian Liu Xiang organized them into their present form centuries after Xunzi's death.
The Han Feizi is an ancient Chinese text attributed to the Legalist political philosopher Han Fei. It comprises a selection of essays in the Legalist tradition,elucidating theories of state power,and synthesizing the methodologies of his predecessors. Its 55 chapters,most of which date to the Warring States period mid-3rd century BCE,are the only such text to survive fully intact. The Han Feizi is believed to contain the first commentaries on the Dao De Jing. Traditionally associated with the Qin dynasty,succeeding emperors and reformers were still influenced by Shen Buhai and the Han Feizi,with Shang Yang's current again coming to prominence in the time of Emperor Wu.
Wu wei is a polymorphic,ancient Chinese concept expressing an ideal practice of "inaction","inexertion" or "effortless action",as a state of personal harmony and free-flowing,spontaneous creative manifestation. Connected with the idea of the Heart or Spirit in Traditional Chinese medicine,it often relates to the behavior of the emperor,most commonly referring to an ideal form of governance or government.
China is a special case in the history of logic,due to its relatively long isolation from the corresponding traditions that developed in Europe,India,and the Islamic world. In China,logical reasoning was closely connected to language,especially with respect to semantic issues and was determined by its tight relation to ethics. Chinese logical thought neither elaborated any explicitly systematic and comprehensive formulation of the laws of reason,nor did they produce a coherent system of symbolism for abstract reasoning. Prior to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,Chinese thinkers had rarely encountered a systematic and well-formulated logical work. Chinese logicians did not use a unique term that corresponds to the English concept of "true",nor did they focus on a distinct notion of semantic truth. However,this does not mean classical Chinese thought lacked logical depth or consistency.
The Huainanzi is an ancient Chinese text made up of essays from scholarly debates held at the court of Liu An,Prince of Huainan,before 139 BCE. Compiled as a handbook for an enlightened sovereign and his court,the work attempts to define the conditions for a perfect socio-political order,derived mainly from a perfect ruler. Including Chinese folk theories of yin and yang and Wu Xing,the Huainanzi draws on Taoist,Legalist,Confucian,and Mohist concepts,but subverts the latter three in favor of a less active ruler,as prominent in the early Han dynasty before the Emperor Wu. The work is notable as a primary evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han.
The Guanzi is an anonymously written,foundational Chinese political and philosophical text originally comprising 86 chapters,of which 76 survive. Compiled in the early Han dynasty,earlier versions potentially date back to the late Warring states period. At over 135,000 characters,it is one of the longest early Chinese philosophical texts. It covers broad subject matter,notably including price regulation of commodities via the concept of "light and heavy" (轻重). Despite its later dating,it is arguably one of the most representative texts of the concepts of political economy that developed during the Spring and Autumn period. Ming dynasty agricultural scientist Xu Guangqi still frequently cited the Guanzi and the Xunzi.
The rectification of names is originally a doctrine of feudal Confucian designations and relationships,behaving accordingly to ensure social harmony. Without such accordance society would essentially crumble and "undertakings would not be completed." Mencius extended the doctrine to include questions of political legitimacy.
Deng Xi was a Chinese philosopher and rhetorician associated with the School of Names. Once a senior official of the Zheng state,and a contemporary of Confucius,he is regarded as China's earliest recorded lawyer,known for his clever use of words and language in lawsuits. The Zuo Zhuan and Annals of LüBuwei critically credit Deng with the authorship of a penal code,the earliest known statute in Chinese criminology entitled the "Bamboo Law". This was developed to take the place of the harsh,more Confucian criminal code developed by the Zheng statesman Zichan.
Huang–Lao was the most influential Chinese school of thought in the early Han dynasty,having its origins in a broader political-philosophical drive looking for solutions to strengthen the feudal order as depicted in Zhou politics. Not systematically explained by historiographer Sima Qian,it is generally interpreted as a school of Syncretism,developing into a major religion,the beginnings of religious Taoism.
State consequentialism is a modern minority theoretical interpretation of Mohist consequentialist ethics in Sinology,often intersecting with Chinese Legalism. Sinologist Fraser of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy interprets Mohist consequentialism,dating back to the 5th century BC,as the "world's earliest form of consequentialism,a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare". An ancient Chinese State consequentialist might evaluate the moral worth of an action based on how it contributes to the basic goods of a more particular entity:a state,with social order,material wealth,and population growth valued by both Mohists and "Legalists" like Shang Yang. The term has also been applied to the political philosophy of the Confucian philosopher Xunzi.
The Xunzi is an ancient Chinese collection of philosophical writings attributed to Xun Kuang,a 3rd-century BC philosopher usually associated with the Confucian tradition. The Xunzi emphasizes education and propriety,and asserts that "human nature is detestable". The text is an important source of early theories of ritual,cosmology,and governance. The ideas within the Xunzi are thought to have exerted a strong influence on Legalist thinkers,such as Han Fei,and laid the groundwork for much of Han dynasty political ideology. The text criticizes a wide range of other prominent early Chinese thinkers,including Laozi,Zhuangzi,Mozi,and Mencius.
