Floating solar

Floating photovoltaic on an irrigation pond

Floating solar or floating photovoltaics (FPV), sometimes called floatovoltaics, are solar panels mounted on a structure that floats. The structures that hold the solar panels usually consist of plastic buoys and cables. They are then placed on a body of water. Typically, these bodies of water are reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds. ^{[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]}

The systems can have advantages over photovoltaics (PV) on land. Water surfaces may be less expensive than the cost of land, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation. Life cycle analysis indicates that foam-based FPV ^[6] have some of the shortest energy payback times (1.3 years) and the lowest greenhouse gas emissions to energy ratio (11 kg CO₂ eq/MWh) in crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic technologies reported. ^[7]

Floating arrays can achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land because water cools the panels. The panels can have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion. ^[8] Floating SPV also provide shade, slow evaporation and inhibit the growth of algae. ^[9]

The market for this renewable energy technology has grown rapidly since 2016. The first 20 plants with capacities of a few dozen kWp were built between 2007 and 2013. ^[10] Installed power grew from 3 GW in 2020, to 13 GW in 2022, ^[11] surpassing a prediction of 10 GW by 2025. ^[12] The World Bank estimated there are 6,600 large bodies of water suitable for floating solar, with a technical capacity of over 4,000 GW if 10% of their surfaces were covered with solar panels. ^[11]

The U.S. has more floating solar potential than any other country in the world. ^[13] Bodies of water suitable for floating solar are well-distributed throughout the U.S. The southeast and southern U.S. plains states generally have reservoirs with the largest capacities. ^[13]

History

Energy production from floating solar photovoltaic sources expanded dramatically in the last half of the 2010s, and is forecast to grow exponentially in the early 2020s.

American, Danish, French, Italian and Japanese nationals were the first to register patents for floating solar. In Italy the first registered patent regarding PV modules on water was issued in February 2008. ^[15]

The first floating solar installation was in Aichi, Japan, in 2007, built by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. ^{[10] [16]}

In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, California, installed 994 solar PV modules with a total capacity of 175 kW onto 130 pontoons to float on the winery's irrigation pond. ^{[10] [17]} Several small-scale floating PV farms were built over the next seven years. The first megawatt-scale plant was commissioned in July 2013 at Okegawa, Japan.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) and GTM Research (later acquired by Wood Mackenzie) ^[18] reported that 7.3 megawatts of SPV had been installed in the U.S. during 2015. ^[19]

In 2016, Kyocera developed what was then the world's largest, a 13.4 MW farm on the reservoir above Yamakura Dam in Chiba Prefecture ^[20] using 50,000 solar panels. ^{[21] [22]} The Huainan plant, inaugurated in May 2017 in China, occupies more than 800000 m² on a former quarry lake, capable of producing up to 40 MW. ^[23]

That same year, in the UK, which claims the largest floating solar panel array in Europe at its Queen Elizabeth II Reservoir in Walton-on-Thames; ^[24] MP Alan Whitehead stated to CNBC that solar power was becoming central to his country's power production. ^[25]

Global installed capacity passed 1 GW in 2018 and reached 13 GW in 2022, mostly in Asia. ^[11] By 2020, costs associated with floating solar and land-based solar had narrowed to near price parity. ^[25]

In 2022, China added the largest floating PV plant in the world, Huaneng Power International (HPI), a 320 MW facility in Dezhou, Shandong, which is expected to produce around 150 GWh annually. ^[26] In 2023, global solar capacity grew by 22%, reaching 1,200 GW. ^[27]

Floating solar panels rise in popularity during the 2020s can be attributed to its increased energy yield and efficiency, when compared to land-based SPVs, ^[28] especially in countries where the land occupation and environmental impact legislation hinders the rise of renewable power generation capabilities.^{[ citation needed ]}

C.J. et al 2024 found that FPVs generate 0.6% to 4.4% more energy and deliver efficiency improvements ranging from 0.1% to 4.45% over its mounted solar installations. ^[28]

In 2024, FSV installations withstood both Typhoon Yagi when, strengthened into Super Typhoon Capricorn, it struck Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China, ^[29] and Hurricane Milton in the United States. ^[30] U.S.-based FPV developer D3Energy's 10 installations along the path of the storm to be undamaged and fully operational, whereas mounted solar panels in Florida were widely damaged by the hurricane. ^[31]

Global Industry Analysts (GIA) forecast a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of 33.7% in FPVs by 2026. ^[26] The FPV market is expected to grow into a $10 billion industry by 2030, with a CAGR of 14.5%. ^[27]

Floating solar panels on oceans

Salt-water resistant floating farms are also being constructed for ocean use. ^[32] They have the potential to reduce spatial pressures on land or lakes. ^[33] Oceans of Energy (Netherlands) developed the world's first offshore solar system in the North Sea. ^[34] Floating solar can have positive and negative effects on the ocean environment: for instance, it can act as an artificial reef and protect small fish and other animals. On the other hand, the floating panels increase shading and their construction may disrupt seagrass and coral reef. ^[35]

Floating solar on lake reservoirs

Floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems are increasingly installed on lakes, reservoirs, and canals as an alternative to land-based solar installations. These systems offer multiple advantages: they save land, maintain higher panel efficiency due to water cooling, and reduce water evaporation. FPVs can be installed on artificial lakes, irrigation basins, and reservoirs, and they are particularly suitable for locations near towns that are not in protected areas and that do not dry up or freeze for long periods. ^[36]

An international study estimated the global potential of FPV on lakes and reservoirs. Out of more than 1 million water bodies larger than 0.1 km², 67,893 sites met the criteria for implementation. Assuming only 10% coverage of these water surfaces, floating photovoltaics could generate approximately 1,302 TWh per year worldwide. Major contributors would be China (252 TWh), Brazil (170 TWh), and the United States (153 TWh). In smaller countries, FPV could satisfy most or all national electricity demand, including Papua New Guinea, Ethiopia, and Rwanda. Bolivia and Tonga could meet 87% and 92% of demand, respectively. In Europe, Finland and Denmark show the highest potential, with 17% and 7% of electricity demand coverage, respectively. ^[37]

Globally, FPV systems are becoming increasingly valuable due to national funding programs and policies promoting renewable energy. They can provide electricity closer to consumption centers, align with water management objectives, and offer relatively fast deployment compared to land-based solar farms. However, environmental impacts must be considered, including potential effects on phytoplankton growth, aquatic ecosystems, and the intended function of the water body. ^[38]

Reservoir owner/operator & power potential

   Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

   Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

   FERC & USACE

   United States Bureau of Reclamation

3D sketch of Lake Powell floating solar concept with vertical axis solar trackers

Floating solar on Federally owned reservoirs in the United States has the potential to generate 1,476 terawatt hours annually. ^{[40] [41]} The shading from floating solar could help mitigate evaporation from reservoirs also. ^[42]

Installation

The construction process for a floating solar project includes installing anchors and mooring lines that attach to the waterbed or shore, assembling floats and panels into rows and sections onshore, and then pulling the sections by boat to the mooring lines and secured into place. ^{[43] [44]}

While overall costs for a floating system neared parity ground-mounted systems by 2020, ^[25] installation was about 10-25% higher in 2023. ^{[45] [46] [43]} According to a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), this increase is primarily due to the need for anchoring systems to secure the panels on water. ^[47]

Technological innovations

Vertical floating photovoltaics

In October 2025, Germany inaugurated the first vertical floating photovoltaic (VFPV) plant on a former gravel pit lake in Bavaria. Developed by the German company SINN Power, the facility uses 2,600 vertically mounted bifacial modules in an east–west orientation, with open water corridors of at least four meters between rows. The installation features a keel-based substructure that extends up to 1.6 meters deep and is secured to a network of cables, allowing controlled movement under wind pressure while maintaining stability with changing water levels. ^[48]

The VFPV system produces electricity that better matches daily consumption peaks, generating more energy in the morning and late afternoon. Seasonal data indicate that vertical bifacial modules can improve energy yield by 7–10% on average and up to 27% during early morning and late afternoon hours. The plant is expected to generate around 2 GWh per year for self-consumption, and early observations suggest neutral to positive ecological effects, including the presence of nesting waterfowl and fish near the installation. ^[48]

Advantages

There are several reasons for this development:

• No land occupancy: The main advantage of floating PV plants is that they do not take up any land, except the limited surfaces necessary for electric cabinet and grid connections. Their price is comparable with land based plants, but floatovoltaics provide a good way to avoid land consumption. ^[49]
• Installation, decommissioning and maintenance: Floating PV plants are more compact than land-based plants, their management is simpler and their construction and decommissioning straightforward. The main point is that no fixed structures exist like the foundations used for a land-based plant so their installation can be totally reversible. Furthermore panels installed on water basins require less maintenance in particular when compared with installation on ground with dusty soil. As arrays are assembled at a single shore point before being moved into place, installations can be faster than ground-mounted arrays. ^[11]
• Water conservation and water quality: Partial coverage of water basins can reduce water evaporation. ^[50] This result depends on climate conditions and on the percentage of the covered surface. In arid climates such as parts of India this is an important advantage since about 30% of the evaporation of the covered surface is saved. ^[51] This may be greater in Australia, and is a very useful feature if the basin is used for irrigation purposes. ^{[52] [53]} Water conservation from FPV is substantial and can be used to protect disappearing terminal natural lakes ^[54] and other bodies of fresh water. ^[55] This positions FPV as a practical approach for renewable energy generation in regions facing water scarcity. ^[56] For example, a case study of Lake Nasser, which is in a region that suffers from water poverty, found that 50% coverage would result in 61.71% or 9.07 billion m³ annual water evaporation savings. ^[57]
• Increased panel efficiency due to cooling: the cooling effect of the water close to the PV panels leads to an energy gain that ranges from 5% to 15%. ^{[6] [58] [59] [60]} Natural cooling can be increased by a water layer on the PV modules or by submerging them, the so-called SP2 (Submerged Photovoltaic Solar Panel). ^[61]
• Tracking: Large floating platforms can easily be rotated horizontally and vertically to enable Sun-tracking (similar to sunflowers). Moving solar arrays uses little energy and doesn't need a complex mechanical apparatus like land-based PV plants. Equipping a floating PV plant with a tracking system costs little extra while the energy gain can range from 15% to 25%. ^[62]
• Environment control: Algal blooms, a serious problem in industrialized countries, may be reduced when greater than 40% of the surface is covered. ^[63] Coverage of water basins reduces light just below the surface, reducing algal photosynthesis and growth. Active pollution control remains important for water management. ^[64]
• Utilization of areas already exploited by human activity: Floating solar plants can be installed over water basins artificially created such as flooded mine pits ^[65] or hydroelectric power plants. In this way it is possible to exploit areas already influenced by the human activity to increase the impact and yield of a given area instead of using other land.
• Hybridization with hydroelectric power plants:

  

  A: Sun. B: Floating solar panels. C: Inverter. D: Electric connection cabinet. E: electricity grid. F: water intake. G: pumped water canal. H: pump/turbine body. I: discharge.

  Floating solar is often installed on existing hydropower. ^[66] This allows for additional benefits and cost reductions such as using the existing transmission lines and distribution infrastructure. ^[67] FPV provides a potentially profitable means of reducing water evaporation in the world's at-risk bodies of fresh water. Furthermore it is possible to install floating photovoltaic panels on the water basins of pumped-storage hydroelectric power plant. The hybridization of solar photovoltaic with pumped storage is beneficial in rising the capability of the two plant combined because the pumped hydroelectric plant can be used to store the high but unstable amount of electricity coming from the solar PV, making the water basin acting as a battery for the solar photovoltaic plant. ^[68] For example, a case study of Lake Mead found that if 10% of the lake was covered with FPV, there would be enough water conserved and electricity generated to service Las Vegas and Reno combined. ^[55] At 50% coverage, FPV would provide over 127 TWh of clean solar electricity and 633.22 million m³ of water savings, which would provide enough electricity to retire 11% of the polluting coal-fired plants in the U.S. and provide water for over five million Americans, annually. ^[55]

Disadvantages

Floating solar presents several challenges to designers: ^{[69] [70] [71] [72]}

• Electrical safety and long-term reliability of system components: Operating on water over its entire service life, the system is required to have significantly increased corrosion resistance and long-term floatation capabilities (redundant, resilient, distributed floats), particularly when installed over salt water.
• Waves: The floating PV system (wires, physical connections, floats, panels) needs to be able to withstand relatively higher winds (than on land) and heavy waves, particularly in off-shore or near-shore installations.
• Maintenance complexity: Operation and maintenance activities are, as a general rule, more difficult to perform on water than on land.
• Floating technology complexity: Floating PV panels have to be installed over floating platforms such as pontoons or floating piers. This technology was not initially developed for accommodating solar modules thus needs to be designed specifically for that purpose.
• Anchoring technology complexity: Anchoring the floating panels is fundamental in order to avoid abrupt variation of panels position that would hinder the production. Anchoring technology is well known and established when applied to boats or other floating objects but it needs to be adapted to the usage with floating PV. Severe storms have caused floating systems to fail and anchoring systems must be developed with these risks in mind. ^[73]
• Societal use conflicts: Covering bodies of water with floating panels may interfere with societal uses. For example, covering reservoirs used for fisheries could undermine local populations reliant on those fisheries. The impact on scenery by floating panels may lower property prices causing opposition from nearby landowners. ^[74] One survey conducted with the local population of Oostvoornse lake, the Netherlands, demonstrated a 10% disapproval rate of short-term Floating PV projects in their community. ^[75] These concerns included obstruction of businesses and recreational activities in the lake area. Other surveyors showed concerns of floating solar technology ruining the lake's natural beauty, and disregarding the local people's personal attachments to Oostvoornse lake. ^[75]
• Ecological challenges: The shading of bodies of water may inhibit harmful algal blooms, but the shade of floating PV panels may cause ecological damage via inhibiting photosynthesis and altering the behavior of light-responsive fish and zooplankton. Furthermore, the emission of polarized light by PV systems can effect animals sensitive to polarized light like many insects, birds, or amphibians. ^[76]

Largest floating solar facilities

Floating photovoltaic power stations (5 MW and larger) ^[77]

PV power station	Location	Country	Nominal Power [78] (MWp)	Year	Notes
Anhui Fuyang Southern Wind-solar-storage	Fuyang, Anhui	China	650	2023	[ citation needed ]
Wenzhou Taihan	Wenzhou, Zhejiang	China	550	2021	[79]
Chang-Bin	Changhua	Taiwan	440		[46] [80] [81]
Dezhou Dingzhuang	Dezhou, Shandong	China	320		+100 MW windpower [82] [83]
Cirata	Purwakarta, West Java	Indonesia	192	2023	+1000 MW hydroelectricity [84]
Three Gorges	Huainan City, Anhui	China	150	2019	[83] [85]
NTPC Ramagundam (BHEL)	Peddapalli, Telangana	India	145
Xinji Huainan	Xinji Huainan	China	102	2017	[85]
Yuanjiang Yiyang	Yiyang, Hunan	China	100	2019	[85]
NTPC Kayamkulam	Kayamkulam, Kerala	India	92		[46]
Omkareshwar Floating Solar Power Park	Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh	India	90	2024	[86]
Les Îlots Blandin	Perthes, Haute-Marne	France	74	2025	[87]
CECEP	Suzhou, Anhui	China	70	2019	[83] [88]
Tengeh		Singapore	60	2021	[83] [89] [90]
304 Industrial Park	Prachinburi	Thailand	60	2023	[91]
Huancheng Jining	Huancheng Jining	China	50	2018	[85]
Da Mi Reservoir	Binh Thuan province	Vietnam	47.5	2019	[92]
Sirindhorn Dam	Ubon Ratchathani	Thailand	45	2021	[93] [94]
Hapcheon Dam	South Gyeongsang	South Korea	40		[95]
Anhui GCL		China	32		[96]
HaBonim Reservoir	Ma'ayan Tzvi	Israel	31	2023	[97]
NTPC Simhadri (BHEL)	Vizag, Andhra Pradesh	India	25
Ubol Ratana Dam	Khon Kaen	Thailand	24	2024	[98]
NTPC Kayamkulam (BHEL)	Kayamkulam, Kerala	India	22		[99]
Former sand pit site	Grafenwörth	Austria	24.5	2023	[100]
Qintang Guigang	Guping Guangxi	China	20	2016	[85]
Lazer	Hautes-Alpes	France	20	2023	[101]
Burgata		Israel	13.5	2022	[102]
NJAW Canoe Brook	Millburn, New Jersey	USA	8.9	2022	[103] [104]

See also

• Agrivoltaics
• Photovoltaics
• Solar canal
• Solar energy
• Solar panel
• Vertical axis solar tracker
• Vertical bifacial solar cells

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Further reading

• Almeida, Rafael M.; Schmitt, Rafael; Grodsky, Steven M.; Flecker, Alexander S.; Gomes, Carla P.; Zhao, Lu; Liu, Haohui; Barros, Nathan; Kelman, Rafael; McIntyre, Peter B. (9 June 2022). "Floating solar power could help fight climate change — let's get it right". Nature. 606 (7913): 246–249. Bibcode:2022Natur.606..246A. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-01525-1 . PMID   35672509.
• Howard, E. and Schmidt, E. 2008. Evaporation control using Rio Tinto's Floating Modules on Northparks Mine, Landloch and NCEA. National Centre for Engineering in Agriculture Publication 1001858/1, USQ, Toowoomba.
• R. Cazzaniga, M. Cicu, M. Rosa-Clot, P. Rosa-Clot, G. M. Tina and C. Ventura (2017). "Floating Photovoltaic plants: performance analysis and design solutions". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 81: 1730–1741. Bibcode:2018RSERv..81.1730C. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.269.
• Taboada, M.E.; Cáceres, L.; Graber, T.A.; Galleguillos, H.R.; Cabeza, L.F.; Rojas, R. (2017). "Solar water heating system and photovoltaic floating cover to reduce evaporation: Experimental results and modeling". Renewable Energy. 105: 601–615. Bibcode:2017REne..105..601T. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2016.12.094. hdl: 10459.1/59048 .
• Chang, Yuan-Hsiou; Ku, Chen-Ruei; Yeh, Naichia (2014). "Solar powered artificial floating island for landscape ecology and water quality improvement". Ecological Engineering. 69: 8–16. Bibcode:2014EcEng..69....8C. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.03.015.
• Ho, C.J.; Chou, Wei-Len; Lai, Chi-Ming (2016). "Thermal and electrical performances of a water-surface floating PV integrated with double water-saturated MEPCM layers". Applied Thermal Engineering. 94: 122–132. Bibcode:2016AppTE..94..122H. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.10.097.
• Rosa-Clot, Marco; Tina, Giuseppe Marco (2018). Submerged and Floating Photovoltaic Systems. doi:10.1016/C2016-0-03291-6. ISBN   978-0-12-812149-8.
• Sahu, Alok; Yadav, Neha; Sudhakar, K. (2016). "Floating photovoltaic power plant: A review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 66: 815–824. Bibcode:2016RSERv..66..815S. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.051.
• Trapani, Kim; Millar, Dean L. (2013). "Proposing offshore photovoltaic (PV) technology to the energy mix of the Maltese islands". Energy Conversion and Management. 67: 18–26. Bibcode:2013ECM....67...18T. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2012.10.022.
• Siecker, J.; Kusakana, K.; Numbi, B.P. (2017). "A review of solar photovoltaic systems cooling technologies". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 79: 192–203. Bibcode:2017RSERv..79..192S. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.053.
• Spencer, Robert S.; Macknick, Jordan; Aznar, Alexandra; Warren, Adam; Reese, Matthew O. (5 February 2019). "Floating Photovoltaic Systems: Assessing the Technical Potential of Photovoltaic Systems on Man-Made Water Bodies in the Continental United States". Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (3): 1680–1689. Bibcode:2019EnST...53.1680S. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b04735. OSTI   1489330. PMID   30532953.
• Ludt, Billy (2023-01-20). "Buoyant racking turns water into an ideal solar site". Solar Power World. Retrieved 2023-02-13.

External links

• Floating Solar Photovoltaics Market Research Study United States Department of Energy

Floating solar opportunities in India