Great spotted kiwi

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Great spotted kiwi
ApteryxHaastiiKeulemans.jpg
Illustration of a female
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Infraclass: Palaeognathae
Order: Apterygiformes
Family: Apterygidae
Genus: Apteryx
Species:
A. maxima
Binomial name
Apteryx maxima
418px-NZ-kiwimapApteryx haastii.png
Range of the great spotted kiwi
Synonyms
  • Apteryx haastii Potts, 1872
  • Apteryx maxima Hutton, 1871
  • Stictapteryx owenii maxima(Hutton, 1871)
  • Apteryx grandisGrieve, 1913

The great spotted kiwi, great grey kiwi [3] or roroa (Apteryx maxima) [2] is a species of kiwi endemic to the South Island of New Zealand. The great spotted kiwi, as a member of the ratites, is flightless. It is the largest of the kiwi. The rugged topography and harsh climate of the high altitude alpine part of its habitat render it inhospitable to a number of introduced mammalian predators, which include dogs, ferrets, cats, and stoats. Because of this, populations of this species have been less seriously affected by the predations of these invasive species compared to other kiwi. Nonetheless, there has been a 43% decline in population in the past 45 years, due to these predators and habitat destruction. This has led it to be classified as vulnerable. [1] There are less than 16,000 great spotted kiwis in total, almost all in the more mountainous parts of northwest Nelson, the northwest coast, and the Southern Alps. A minority live on island reserves.

Contents

This kiwi is highly aggressive, and pairs will defend their large territories against other kiwi. [3] Great spotted kiwi are nocturnal, and will sleep during the day in burrows. At night, they feed on invertebrates and will also eat plants. Great spotted kiwi breed between June and March. The egg is the largest of all birds in proportion to the size of the bird. Chicks take 75 to 85 days to hatch, and after hatching, they are abandoned by their parents.

Taxonomy and etymology

Illustration of an immature and an adult male ApteryxHaastiiMKeulemans.jpg
Illustration of an immature and an adult male

This large kiwi is one of five species of kiwis residing in New Zealand. The other four are the tokoeka (Apteryx australis), Okarito brown kiwi (Apteryx rowi), little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii), [4] and North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx mantelli). [5] Great spotted kiwis are most closely related to the little spotted kiwi. [6] The kiwi genus, Apteryx , is endemic to New Zealand; 44% of the bird species native to New Zealand are endemic. [4] Kiwis are placed in the ratite family, which also includes the emu, ostrich, rhea, [7] and cassowary, as well as the extinct moa of New Zealand and elephant birds of Madagascar. All ratites are flightless. [8] While it was long presumed that kiwi were closely related to moa, recent DNA research identified elephant birds as kiwi's closest relatives. Additionally, kiwi are more closely related to emus and cassowaries than to moa; the latter are actually closest to the weakly flying tinamous of South America. [9]

 
 

A. haastii

A. owenii

Relationships in the genus Apteryx [6]

Before the great spotted kiwi was known to science, several stories circulated about the existence of a large kiwi called the Maori roaroa. In 1871, two specimens were brought to the Canterbury Museum, where they were identified as a new species and were named after the museum's curator, Dr. Haast. [10]

The great spotted kiwi was first described as Apteryx haastii by Thomas Potts, in 1872, based on a specimen from Westland, New Zealand, [3] and changed to the resurrected A. maxima Sclater & Hochstetter 1861 in 2024. [2] The genus is monotypic. [11]

The genus name, Apteryx, comes from the Ancient Greek words a "without" or "no", and pteryx, "wing" and haasti is the Latin form of the last name of Sir Julius von Haast. [12] [13]

Description

Great spotted kiwis are the largest of the kiwis; [6] the male is 45 cm (18 in) tall, while the female is 50 cm (20 in) tall. Bill length ranges from 9 to 12 cm (3.5–4.7 in), [14] while weight ranges between 1.2 and 2.6 kg (2.6 and 5.7 lb) for males and 1.5 and 3.3 kg (3.3 and 7.3 lb) for females. [3] The body is pear-shaped, while the head and neck is small with a long slender ivory bill. [14] [15] The great spotted kiwi, along with the other kiwi species, is the only bird with nostrils at the end of its bill. [16] The eyes are small and do not see well, [17] as it relies mostly on its sense of smell. [18] The legs are short, with three toes per foot. [17] It has a plumage composed of soft, hair-like feathers, which have no aftershafts. The plumage can range from charcoal grey to light brown. [14] They have large vibrissae around the gape, and they have no tail, only a small pygostyle. [3] The common name of this bird comes from black spots on its feathers. [17] They use their powerful legs and claws for defence against predators like stoats or ferrets. Kiwis are flightless birds, and hence lack hollow bones, lack a keel to which wing muscles anchor, and have tiny wings. [14] This species also has a low body temperature compared to other birds. Average lifespan is 30 to 40 years. [19]

Distribution and habitat

An example of a tussock grassland, which great spotted kiwis will inhabit Exclusion plot on Island Saddle.jpg
An example of a tussock grassland, which great spotted kiwis will inhabit

Greater spotted kiwis once lived in numerous areas throughout the South Island, but because of predation by invasive species, the remaining kiwi are now restricted to three localities. [20] These kiwi live in higher altitude areas. Populations are present from northwestern Nelson to the Buller River, the northwest coast (Hurunui River to Arthur's Pass), and the Paparoa Range, [1] as well as within the Lake Rotoiti Mainland Island. [21] [22] The Southern Alps population is particularly isolated. [21] Great spotted kiwis reside in complex, maze-like burrows that they construct. [23] Up to fifty burrows can exist in one bird's territory. [24] They will often move around, staying in a different burrow every day. [18] Bird's Nest Fungus sometimes grows in these burrows. [25] Their habitat ranges in elevation from sea level to 1,500 m (4,900 ft), but the majority are concentrated in a range from 700 to 1,100 m (2,300–3,600 ft) in a subalpine zone. These kiwis will live in tussock grasslands, scrubland, pasture, and forests. [1]

Behaviour

The great spotted kiwi is nocturnal in behaviour. [17] If the kiwis live in an area lacking predators, they will come out in the day. At night, they come out to feed. Like other species of kiwi, they have a good sense of smell, which is unusual in birds. [14] Males are fiercely territorial. [21] At most, four to five kiwis live in a square kilometre. [25] One pair's territory can be 25 hectares (62 acres) in size. It is not known how they defend such a large territory in proportion to their size. [18] They will call, chase, or fight intruders out. Vocalisations of the great spotted kiwi include growls, hisses, and bill snapping. [25] Great spotted kiwi males have a call that resembles a warbling whistle, while the female call is harsh raspy, and also warbling. [15] [24]

In Otorohanga Kiwi House Spotted kiwi in Otorohanga Kiwi House, 2004-06-16.jpg
In Otorohanga Kiwi House

Breeding and nesting

Breeding Population and Trends [26] [15]
LocationPopulationDateTrend
Buller River to Nelson UnknownDeclining
Paparoa Range UnknownDeclining
Arthur's Pass National Park UnknownDeclining
Nelson Lakes National Park Unknown2007Introduced
Total (South Island, New Zealand)16,0002008Declining -2% yr

Great spotted kiwis are monogamous, [18] with pairings sometimes lasting twenty years. Nests are made in burrows. The breeding season begins in June and ends in March, as this is when food is plentiful. Males reach sexual maturity at 18 months in captivity, while females are able to lay eggs after three years. In the wild, sexual maturity for both sexes is between ages three and five. Great spotted kiwi males chase females around until the females either run off or mate. The pair mates about two to three times during peak activity. [27] The gestation period is about a month. Females do not eat during this period, as the eggs will take up a fourth of a kiwi's body mass. [18] The yolk takes up 65% of the egg. In most bird eggs, the yolk takes up about 35 to 40% of the egg. This makes the kiwi egg the largest in proportion to the body. [27] Females must rely on fat stored from the previous five months to survive. Because of the large size of the egg, gestation is uncomfortable for the female, and they do not move much. To relieve the pain, females soak themselves in water when they come out of the burrows by dipping their abdomens into puddles. [18] The egg-laying season is between August and January. [28]

After the female lays the egg, the male incubates the egg while the female guards the nest. Males only leave the nest for a few hours to hunt, and during this time, the female takes over. It takes 75 to 85 days for the egg to hatch. The kiwi chick takes 2 to 3 days simply to get out of its egg. Kiwi chicks are superprecocial, and are abandoned by their parents after hatching. After ten days, chicks venture out of the burrow to hunt. Most chicks are killed by predators in the first six months of their life. Great spotted kiwis reach full size at year six. Unlike most birds, female great spotted kiwis have two ovaries. Most birds have only one. Great spotted kiwis are distinguishable from other kiwi species by the fact that they can only produce one egg a year, as it takes so much energy to produce the massive egg. [18]

Feeding

Stuffed specimen from Auckland Museum Am media-v-602297.jpg
Stuffed specimen from Auckland Museum

In the ground, they dig for earthworms and grubs, [17] and they search for beetles, cicada, crickets, flies, wētā, butterflies, moths, spiders, caterpillars, slugs and snails on the ground. [24] [29] They will also feed on berries and seeds. [17] To find prey, the great spotted kiwi use their scenting skills or feel vibrations caused by the movement of their prey. [24] To do the latter, a kiwi would stick its beak into the ground, [18] then use its beak to dig into the ground. [17] As they are nocturnal, they do not emerge until thirty minutes after sunset to begin the hunt. [18] Kiwis will also swallow small stones, which aid in digestion. [30]

Survival

Because adult great spotted kiwis are large and powerful, they are able to fend off most predators that attack them, such as stoats, ferrets, weasels, pigs, brush possums and cats, all of which are invasive species in New Zealand. However, dogs are able to kill even adults. [15] Stoats, ferrets, possums, cats and dogs will feed on the eggs and chicks, meaning most chicks die within their first five months of life. [24] [26] Before the arrival of mammalian predators, the great spotted kiwi's natural predators would have been birds of prey like the extinct Haast's eagle and Eyles' harrier and the extant Swamp harrier. [25]

Diseases

The great spotted kiwi is the sole host of a species of feather mite, Kiwialges haastii , described in 1985. [31]

Status

A scientist prepares to release a great spotted kiwi as part of a conservation program in Kahurangi National Park Chris Goulding from DOC holding a great spotted kiwi during a release in Kahurangi National Park.jpg
A scientist prepares to release a great spotted kiwi as part of a conservation program in Kahurangi National Park

The great spotted kiwi population started declining when European settlers first arrived in New Zealand. [1] Before settlers arrived, about 12 million great spotted kiwis lived in New Zealand. [18] This bird is often preyed upon by invasive pigs, dogs, ferrets and stoats, leading to a 5% chick survival rate. [24] It has more of an advantage than other kiwi species over these predators because it lives in high altitude areas, where the wet upland population thrives. [21] However, there has been a decrease in population of 43% in the past 45 years, [1] and has declined 90% since 1900. [32] Humans have also endangered the species by destroying their habitat by logging forests and building mines. [25] [33] Previously, humans hunted these kiwis for feathers and food. [17] In 1988, the species was listed as Least Concern species. It is currently classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species. This kiwi has an occurrence range of 8,500 km2 (3,300 sq mi), and in 2000 an estimated 22,000 adult birds remained. They have been trending down about 5.8% a year. [15] The main threat is from invasive predators including mustelids, brush-tailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula , feral cats, dogs and pigs [1] [15] The most threatened populations are in the southern areas of the species' range. [21] Less than 16,000 great spotted kiwis remain. [32] Movements for saving the kiwi are in place, and sanctuaries for the great spotted kiwi have been made. [25] Thanks to intensive trapping and poisoning efforts the chick survival rate has been raised to about 60% in areas where mammalian pest control is undertaken. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kiwi (bird)</span> Order of birds

Kiwi are flightless birds endemic to New Zealand of the order Apterygiformes. The five extant species fall into the family Apterygidae and genus Apteryx. Approximately the size of a domestic chicken, kiwi are the smallest ratites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ratite</span> Polyphyletic group of birds

Ratites are a polyphyletic group consisting of all birds within the infraclass Palaeognathae that lack keels and cannot fly. They are mostly large, long-necked, and long-legged, the exception being the kiwi, which is also the only nocturnal extant ratite.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tinamou</span> Family of birds

Tinamous are members of the order Tinamiformes, and family Tinamidae, divided into two distinct subfamilies, containing 46 species found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. The word "tinamou" comes from the Galibi term for these birds, tinamu. Tinamous are the only living group of palaeognaths able to fly, and were traditionally regarded as the sister group of the flightless ratites, but recent work places them well within the ratite radiation as most closely related to the extinct moa of New Zealand, implying flightlessness emerged among ratites multiple times. Tinamous first appear in the fossil record in the Miocene epoch. They are generally sedentary, ground-dwelling and, though not flightless, when possible avoid flight in favour of hiding or running away from danger. They are found in a variety of habitats, ranging from semi-arid alpine grasslands to tropical rainforests. The two subfamilies are broadly divided by habitat, with the Nothurinae referred to as steppe or open country tinamous, and the Tinaminae known as forest tinamous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flightless bird</span> Birds that cannot fly

Flightless birds are birds that cannot fly. They have, through evolution, lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species, including the well-known ratites and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the Inaccessible Island rail. The largest flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird in general, is the common ostrich.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern brown kiwi</span> New Zealand endemic bird species

The southern brown kiwi, tokoeka, or common kiwi is a species of kiwi from South Island of New Zealand. Until 2000 it was considered conspecific with the North Island brown kiwi, and still is by some authorities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Little spotted kiwi</span> Species of bird

The little spotted kiwi or little grey kiwi is a small flightless bird in the kiwi family, Apterygidae. It is the smallest of the five kiwi species, at about 0.9 to 1.9 kg, about the size of a bantam. It is endemic to New Zealand, and in pre-European times occurred in both main islands, but is now restricted to a number of small offshore islands, and mainland reserves protected by pest-exclusion fences. The little spotted kiwi was on the brink of extinction when a conservation effort took place 100 years ago. Five individuals were translocated from the South Island of New Zealand to Kapiti Island. Today, the Kapiti Island population has grown, with around 1200 birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Okarito kiwi</span> Species of bird

The Okarito kiwi, also known as the rowi or Okarito brown kiwi, is a member of the kiwi family Apterygidae, described as new to science in 2003. The species is part of the brown kiwi complex, and is morphologically very similar to other members of that complex. It is found in a restricted area of the Ōkārito forest on the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island, and has a population of only about 600 birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Island brown kiwi</span> Species of bird

The North Island brown kiwi is a species of kiwi that is widespread in the northern two-thirds of the North Island of New Zealand and, with about 35,000 remaining, it is the most common kiwi species. The eggs laid by the North Island Brown Kiwi are among the largest eggs relative to its body size.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palaeognathae</span> Infraclass of birds

Palaeognathae is an infraclass of birds, called paleognaths or palaeognaths, within the class Aves of the clade Archosauria. It is one of the two extant infraclasses of birds, the other being Neognathae, both of which form Neornithes. Palaeognathae contains five extant orders consisting of four flightless lineages, termed ratites, and one flying lineage, the Neotropic tinamous. There are 47 species of tinamous, five of kiwis (Apteryx), three of cassowaries (Casuarius), one of emus (Dromaius), two of rheas (Rhea) and two of ostriches (Struthio). Recent research has indicated that paleognaths are monophyletic but the traditional taxonomic split between flightless and flighted forms is incorrect; tinamous are within the ratite radiation, meaning flightlessness arose independently multiple times via parallel evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wrybill</span> Species of bird

The wrybill or ngutuparore is a species of plover endemic to New Zealand. It is the only species of bird in the world with a beak that is bent sideways in one direction, always to the right. A 2015 study found it to be within the Charadrius clade, with other New Zealand plovers its closest relatives; the nearest being the New Zealand dotterel or New Zealand plover, and then the double-banded plover or banded dotterel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Birds of New Zealand</span>

The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included many endemic species found in no other country. As an island archipelago, New Zealand accumulated bird diversity, and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the bird song was deafening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black petrel</span> Species of bird

The black petrel, also called Parkinson's petrel, is a medium-sized, black-plumaged petrel, the smallest of the Procellaria. The species is an endemic breeder of New Zealand, breeding only on Great Barrier Island and Little Barrier Island, off the North Island. At sea it disperses as far as Australia and Ecuador.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluttering shearwater</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Victoria Forest Park</span> Conservation park in New Zealand

Victoria Forest Park, is situated on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand. At 2,069 square kilometres (799 sq mi) it is New Zealand's largest forest park. The park is administered by the Department of Conservation (DOC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haast tokoeka</span> Species of kiwi

The Haast tokoeka or Haast kiwi is a putative subspecies of the southern brown kiwi. It is one of the rarest kiwi in New Zealand. Like other kiwi, this bird is flightless.

<i>Kiwialges haastii</i> Feather mite from the great spotted kiwi

Kiwalges haastii is a species of New Zealand feather mite in the superfamily Analgoidea, known only from the great spotted kiwi, from which it derives its name.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">West Coast Wildlife Centre</span> Zoo in Franz Josef / Waiau

The West Coast Wildlife Centre is a kiwi-rearing facility in Franz Josef, New Zealand. A public-private partnership with the Department of Conservation and Te Rūnunga o Makaawhio of Ngāi Tahu, it hatches eggs of the kiwi species rowi and Haast tokoeka retrieved from the wild. It rears the chicks until they are large enough for transfer to outdoor enclosures as part of Operation Nest Egg. More than 50 per cent of all living rowi were hatched at the Wildlife Centre. It is also a tourist attraction with several captive tuatara, museum displays, and tours of the rearing facility.

Kiwilichus is a genus of feather mites in Kiwilichidae, a monotypic family of mites that is endemic to New Zealand. Kiwi (Apteryx) are the host birds of the two species. Kiwilichus cryptosikyus is known to be hosted by southern brown kiwi and great spotted kiwi, and Kiwilichus delosikyus by southern brown kiwi.

The Fiordland tokoeka or Fiordland kiwi is a subspecies of southern brown kiwi. It is endemic to New Zealand. Like other ratites, it is flightless.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stewart Island kiwi</span> New Zealand endemic flightless bird subspecies

The Stewart Island tokoeka, Stewart Island kiwi, Rakiura tokoeka or Rakiura kiwi is a subspecies of southern brown kiwi endemic to New Zealand. Like other ratites, it is a flightless bird.

References

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  11. ↑ Clements, J (2007)
  12. ↑ Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1980)
  13. ↑ Gotch, A. F. (1995)
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 "Great Spotted Kiwi Adaption". University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 BirdLife International (2008)(a)
  16. ↑ "Great Spotted Kiwi interesting facts". University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Great Spotted Main Page". Centralpets.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "Apteryx haastii". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 20 April 2008.
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  20. ↑ McLennann, J. & McCann, T.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 "About The Bird:Great Spotted". Save the Kiwi. Archived from the original on 1 January 2008. Retrieved 20 January 2008.
  22. ↑ "KIWIS Apterygidae". MontereyBay.com. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
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  26. 1 2 "Great Spotted Kiwi :: Kiwis for kiwi". www.kiwisforkiwi.org. Retrieved 30 July 2020.
  27. 1 2 "Great Spotted Kiwi Reproduction". University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 6 July 2008.
  28. ↑ Cockrem, J. F. , et al. (1992)
  29. ↑ "Apteryx haastii (Great spotted kiwi)". Animal Diversity Web .
  30. ↑ "Great Spotted Kiwi Nutrition". University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
  31. ↑ Bishop, Dallas M. (1984). "Kiwialges haastii n. sp., a feather mite (Acari: Analgidae) from the great spotted kiwi, Apteryx haastii Potts, 1872 (Aves: Apterygidae); with a key to species of Kiwialges, and new host records". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 11 (3): 233–237. doi: 10.1080/03014223.1984.10428237 . ISSN   0301-4223.
  32. 1 2 "Great Spotted Kiwi - BirdLife Species Factsheet". BirdLife International. Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
  33. ↑ "New Zealand State Coal Company Plans to Mine Kiwi Habitat". Environmental News Service. 12 July 2004. Archived from the original on 20 February 2005. Retrieved 11 July 2008.

Bibliography

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