Multiple endocrine neoplasia

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Multiple endocrine neoplasia
Other namesMEN
Multiple endocrine neoplasia.png
Specialty Endocrinology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
CausesRET receptor defect Which is growth signal receptor, its type of self-sufficiency of growth signals

Multiple endocrine neoplasia (abbreviated MEN) is a condition which encompasses several distinct syndromes featuring tumors of endocrine glands, each with its own characteristic pattern. In some cases, the tumors are malignant, in others, benign. Benign or malignant tumors of nonendocrine tissues occur as components of some of these tumor syndromes.

Contents

MEN syndromes are inherited as autosomal dominant disorders. [1]

Presentation

Although not officially categorized as multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes, Von Hippel–Lindau disease [2] and Carney complex [3] are two other autosomal dominant endocrine tumor syndromes with features that overlap the clinical features of the MEN syndromes. Although not transmitted in the germline, McCune–Albright syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by endocrine neoplastic features involving endocrine glands that overlap with those involved in MEN1 or MEN2. [4]

Comparison

Percentages in the table below refer to the percentage of people with the MEN type who develop the neoplasia type.

Feature MEN 1 MEN 2
MEN 2A MEN 2B FMTC
Eponym Wermer syndromeSipple syndromeWagenmann–Froboese syndrome(none)
OMIM 131100 171400 162300 155240
Pancreatic tumors gastrinoma (50% [5] ),
insulinoma (20% [5] ),
VIPoma,
glucagonoma,
PPoma		---
Pituitary adenoma 66% [5] ---
Angiofibroma 64%* [6] ---
Lipoma 17%* [6] ---
Parathyroid hyperplasia90% [5] 50% [5] --
Medullary thyroid carcinoma -100% [5] 85% [5] 100%
Pheochromocytoma ->33% [5] 50%-
Marfanoid body habitus--80%-
Mucosal neuroma --100% [5] -
Gene(s) MEN1 ( 613733) RET ( 164761) RET ( 164761) RET ( 164761),
NTRK1 ( 191315)
Approx. prevalence 1 in 35,000
(1 in 20,000 to
1 in 40,000) [7] 		1 in 40,000 [8] 1 in 1,000,000
(1 in 600,000 [9] to
1 in 4,000,000 [10] ) [11]
Initial description (year)1954 [12] 1961 [13] 1965

*- of patients with MEN1 and gastrinoma

FMTC = familial medullary thyroid cancer

Micrograph of a medullary thyroid carcinoma, as may be seen in MEN 2A and MEN 2B. H&E stain Medullary thyroid carcinoma - 2 - high mag.jpg
Micrograph of a medullary thyroid carcinoma, as may be seen in MEN 2A and MEN 2B. H&E stain

MEN 2B is sometimes known as MEN 3 and the designation varies by institution (c.f. www.ClinicalReview.com). Although a variety of additional eponyms have been proposed for MEN2B (e.g. Williams-Pollock syndrome, Gorlin-Vickers syndrome, and Wagenmann–Froboese syndrome), none ever gained sufficient traction to merit continued use and, indeed, are all but abandoned in the medical literature. Another early report was Schimke et al. in 1968. [14]

OMIM also includes a fourth form of multiple endocrine neoplasia ("MEN4"), associated with CDKN1B. [15] The presentation is believed to overlap that of MEN1 and MEN2. [16]

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 (MEN1)

The MEN1 gene

The MEN1 gene consists of ten exons, spanning about 10 kb, and encodes a 610 amino acid protein named menin. The first exon and the last part of exon 10 are not translated. The main transcript of 2.8 kb has been described in a large variety of human tissues (pancreas, thymus, adrenal glands, thyroid, testis, leukocytes, heart, brain, lung, muscle, small intestine, liver, and kidney); an additional transcript of approximately 4 kb has been detected in pancreas and thymus, suggesting tissue-specific alternative splicing. [17]

The Menin Protein

Menin is a 610 amino acid (67Kda) nuclear protein, highly conserved from mouse (98%), rat (97%) and, more distantly, zebrafish (75%) and Drosophila (47%) (47-51). Human and mouse MEN1 amino acid sequences share 95.8% identity and 98.4% similarity. Analysis of menin amino acid sequence did not reveal homologies to any other known human or mammalian protein, sequence motif, or signal peptide. The absence of significant homology to any other protein complicates efforts to elucidate the functions of menin.[ citation needed ]

Pathophysiology

MEN1 follows Knudson’s “two-hit” model for tumor suppressor gene carcinogenesis (30). The first hit is a heterozygous MEN1 germline mutation, inherited from one parent (familial cases) or developed in an early embryonic stage (sporadic cases) and present in all cells at birth. The second hit is a MEN1 somatic mutation, usually a large deletion, that occurs in the predisposed endocrine cell as loss of the remaining wild-type allele and gives cells the survival advantage needed for tumor development. [17]

Mnemonic

A useful mnemonic to remember the associated neoplasias is below:[ citation needed ]

MEN I (3 Ps) - Pituitary, Parathyroid, Pancreatic
MEN IIa (2Ps, 1M) - Pheochromocytoma, Parathyroid, Medullary Thyroid Ca
MEN IIb (1P, 2Ms) - Pheochromocytoma, Medullary Thyroid Ca, Marfanoid habitus/mucosal neuroma

MEN1 mutations in multiple endocrine neoplasia patients and clinical genetics

MEN1 gene mutations can be identified in 70–95% of MEN1 patients and in about 20% of familial isolated hyperparathyroidism cases. Almost all patients are heterozygous for mutations. One affected family has been identified with individuals both homozygous and heterozygous for MEN1 mutations. In this family, there was no difference in disease history between the homozygous and heterozygous mutation carriers. [17]

50% of patients develop signs and symptoms by 20 years of age and more than 95% have symptoms by 40 years of age. There is significant intra- and inter-familial variability in the age of onset, the severity of disease, and tumor types. Despite numerous studies, no genotype-phenotype correlations have been established, suggesting that unknown genetic and environmental modifiers are involved in the expression of the MEN1 phenotype. [18]

Manifestations

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) is a rare hereditary endocrine cancer syndrome characterized primarily by tumors of the parathyroid glands (95% of cases), endocrine gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) tract (30–80% of cases), and anterior pituitary (15–90% of cases). [19] Other endocrine and non-endocrine neoplasms including adrenocortical and thyroid tumors, visceral and cutaneous lipomas, meningiomas, facial angiofibromas and collagenomas, and thymic, gastric, and bronchial carcinoids also occur. The phenotype of MEN1 is broad, and over 20 different combinations of endocrine and non-endocrine manifestations have been described. MEN1 should be suspected in patients with an endocrinopathy of two of the three characteristic affected organs, or with an endocrinopathy of one of these organs plus a first-degree relative affected by MEN1 syndrome.[ citation needed ]

MEN1 patients usually have a family history of MEN1. Inheritance is autosomal dominant; any affected parent has a 50% chance to transmit the disease to his or her progeny. MEN1 gene mutations can be identified in 70–95% of MEN1 patients. [20]

Many endocrine tumors in MEN1 are benign and cause symptoms by overproduction of hormones or local mass effects, while other MEN1 tumors are associated with an elevated risk for malignancy. About one-third of patients affected with MEN1 will die early from MEN1-related cancer or associated malignancy. Entero-pancreatic gastrinomas and thymic and bronchial carcinoids are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Consequently, the average age of death in untreated individuals with MEN1 is significantly lower (55.4 years for men and 46.8 years for women) than that of the general population.[ citation needed ]

A recommend surveillance program for Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 has been suggested by the International Guidelines for Diagnosis and Therapy of MEN syndromes group. [21]

History

In 1903 Erdheim described the case of an acromegalic patient with a pituitary adenoma and three enlarged parathyroid glands.[ citation needed ]

In 1953 Underdahl et al. reported a case series of 8 patients with a syndrome of pituitary, parathyroid, and pancreatic islet adenomas.[ citation needed ]

In 1954 Wermer noted that this syndrome was transmitted as a dominant trait.[ citation needed ]

In 1959 Hazard et al. described medullary (solid) thyroid carcinoma.[ citation needed ]

In 1961 Sipple described a combination of a pheochromocytoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma and parathyroid adenoma.[ citation needed ]

In 1966 Williams et al. described the combination of mucosal neuromas, pheochromocytoma and medullary thyroid carcinoma.[ citation needed ]

In 1968 Steiner et al. introduced the term "multiple endocrine neoplasias" (MEN) to describe disorders featuring combinations of endocrine tumors and proposed the terms 'Wermer syndrome' for MEN 1 and 'Sipple syndrome' for MEN 2.[ citation needed ]

In 1974 Sizemore et al. showed that the MEN 2 category included two groups of patients with MTC and pheochromocytoma: one with parathyroid disease and a normal appearance (MEN 2A) and the other without parathyroid disease but with mucosal neuromas and mesodermal abnormalities (MEN 2B).[ citation needed ]

In 1988 the MEN1 locus was assigned to Chromosome 11 (11q13).

In 1993 mutations in the RET oncogene were shown to be the cause of MEN 2A by Lois Mulligan, working in the laboratory of Bruce Ponder in Cambridge. [22]

In 1998 the MEN1 gene was cloned. [23]

Terminology

The older names, "multiple endocrine adenomas" and "multiple endocrine adenomatosis" (MEA), have been replaced by the current terminology.[ citation needed ]

The term multiple endocrine neoplasias are used when two or more endocrine tumor types, known to occur as a part of one of the defined MEN syndromes, occurs in a single patient and there is evidence for either a causative mutation or hereditary transmission. The presence of two or more tumor types in a single patient does not automatically designate that individual as having MEN because there is a small statistical chance that the development of two "sporadic" tumors that occur in one of the MEN syndromes could occur by chance.[ citation needed ]

The term "multiple endocrine neoplasia" was introduced in 1968, but descriptions of the condition date back to 1903. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thyroid neoplasm</span> Medical condition

Thyroid neoplasm is a neoplasm or tumor of the thyroid. It can be a benign tumor such as thyroid adenoma, or it can be a malignant neoplasm, such as papillary, follicular, medullary or anaplastic thyroid cancer. Most patients are 25 to 65 years of age when first diagnosed; women are more affected than men. The estimated number of new cases of thyroid cancer in the United States in 2010 is 44,670 compared to only 1,690 deaths. Of all thyroid nodules discovered, only about 5 percent are cancerous, and under 3 percent of those result in fatalities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zollinger–Ellison syndrome</span> Condition in which tumours stimulate excessive gastric acid production

Zollinger–Ellison syndrome is a disease in which tumors cause the stomach to produce too much acid, resulting in peptic ulcers. Symptoms include abdominal pain and diarrhea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hyperparathyroidism</span> Increase in parathyroid hormone levels in the blood

Hyperparathyroidism is an increase in parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels in the blood. This occurs from a disorder either within the parathyroid glands or as response to external stimuli. Symptoms of hyperparathyroidism are caused by inappropriately normal or elevated blood calcium leaving the bones and flowing into the blood stream in response to increased production of parathyroid hormone. In healthy people, when blood calcium levels are high, parathyroid hormone levels should be low. With long-standing hyperparathyroidism, the most common symptom is kidney stones. Other symptoms may include bone pain, weakness, depression, confusion, and increased urination. Both primary and secondary may result in osteoporosis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pituitary adenoma</span> Human disease

Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland. Most pituitary tumors are benign, approximately 35% are invasive and just 0.1% to 0.2% are carcinomas. Pituitary adenomas represent from 10% to 25% of all intracranial neoplasms and the estimated prevalence rate in the general population is approximately 17%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraganglioma</span> Medical condition

A paraganglioma is a rare neuroendocrine neoplasm that may develop at various body sites. When the same type of tumor is found in the adrenal gland, they are referred to as a pheochromocytoma. They are rare tumors, with an overall estimated incidence of 1/300,000. There is no test that determines benign from malignant tumors; long-term follow-up is therefore recommended for all individuals with paraganglioma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primary hyperparathyroidism</span> Medical condition

Primary hyperparathyroidism is a medical condition where the parathyroid gland produce excess amounts of parathyroid hormone (PTH). The symptoms of the condition relate to the resulting elevated serum calcium (hypercalcemia), which can cause digestive symptoms, kidney stones, psychiatric abnormalities, and bone disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1</span> Medical condition

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1) is one of a group of disorders, the multiple endocrine neoplasias, that affect the endocrine system through development of neoplastic lesions in pituitary, parathyroid gland and pancreas. Individuals suffering from this disorder are prone to developing multiple endocrine and nonendocrine tumors. It was first described by Paul Wermer in 1954.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2</span> Medical condition

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 is a group of medical disorders associated with tumors of the endocrine system. The tumors may be benign or malignant (cancer). They generally occur in endocrine organs, but may also occur in endocrine tissues of organs not classically thought of as endocrine. MEN2 is a sub-type of MEN and itself has sub-types, as discussed below. Variants in MEN2A have been associated with Hirschsprung disease. Screening for this condition can begin as young as eight years old for Pheochromocytoma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Osteitis fibrosa cystica</span> Medical condition

Osteitis fibrosa cystica is a skeletal disorder resulting in a loss of bone mass, a weakening of the bones as their calcified supporting structures are replaced with fibrous tissue, and the formation of cyst-like brown tumors in and around the bone. Osteitis fibrosis cystica (OFC), also known as osteitis fibrosa, osteodystrophia fibrosa, and von Recklinghausen's disease of bone, is caused by hyperparathyroidism, which is a surplus of parathyroid hormone from over-active parathyroid glands. This surplus stimulates the activity of osteoclasts, cells that break down bone, in a process known as osteoclastic bone resorption. The hyperparathyroidism can be triggered by a parathyroid adenoma, hereditary factors, parathyroid carcinoma, or renal osteodystrophy. Osteoclastic bone resorption releases minerals, including calcium, from the bone into the bloodstream, causing both elevated blood calcium levels, and the structural changes which weaken the bone. The symptoms of the disease are the consequences of both the general softening of the bones and the excess calcium in the blood, and include bone fractures, kidney stones, nausea, moth-eaten appearance in the bones, appetite loss, and weight loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroendocrine tumor</span> Medical condition

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are neoplasms that arise from cells of the endocrine (hormonal) and nervous systems. They most commonly occur in the intestine, where they are often called carcinoid tumors, but they are also found in the pancreas, lung, and the rest of the body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine disease</span> Medical condition

Endocrine diseases are disorders of the endocrine system. The branch of medicine associated with endocrine disorders is known as endocrinology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RET proto-oncogene</span> Mammalian protein

The RETproto-oncogene encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase for members of the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family of extracellular signalling molecules. RET loss of function mutations are associated with the development of Hirschsprung's disease, while gain of function mutations are associated with the development of various types of human cancer, including medullary thyroid carcinoma, multiple endocrine neoplasias type 2A and 2B, pheochromocytoma and parathyroid hyperplasia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MEN1</span> Protein

Menin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MEN1 gene. Menin is a putative tumor suppressor associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and has autosomal dominant inheritance. Variations in the MEN1 gene can cause pituitary adenomas, hyperparathyroidism, pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, gastrinoma, and adrenocortical cancers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenal tumor</span> Medical condition

An adrenal tumor or adrenal mass is any benign or malignant neoplasms of the adrenal gland, several of which are notable for their tendency to overproduce endocrine hormones. Adrenal cancer is the presence of malignant adrenal tumors, and includes neuroblastoma, adrenocortical carcinoma and some adrenal pheochromocytomas. Most adrenal pheochromocytomas and all adrenocortical adenomas are benign tumors, which do not metastasize or invade nearby tissues, but may cause significant health problems by unbalancing hormones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adrenocortical adenoma</span> Medical condition

An adrenocortical adenoma or adrenal adenoma is commonly described as a benign neoplasm emerging from the cells that comprise the adrenal cortex. Like most adenomas, the adrenocortical adenoma is considered a benign tumor since the majority of them are non-functioning and asymptomatic. Adrenocortical adenomas are classified as ACTH-independent disorders, and are commonly associated with conditions linked to hyperadrenalism such as Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism) or Conn's syndrome (hyperaldosteronism), which is also known as primary aldosteronism. In addition, recent case reports further support the affiliation of adrenocortical adenomas with hyperandrogenism or florid hyperandrogenism which can cause hyperandrogenic hirsutism in females. "Cushing's syndrome" differs from the "Cushing's disease" even though both conditions are induced by hypercortisolism. The term "Cushing's disease" refers specifically to "secondary hypercortisolism" classified as "ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome" caused by pituitary adenomas. In contrast, "Cushing's syndrome" refers specifically to "primary hypercortisolism" classified as "ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome" caused by adrenocortical adenomas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medullary thyroid cancer</span> Malignant thyroid neoplasm originating from C-cells

Medullary thyroid cancer is a form of thyroid carcinoma which originates from the parafollicular cells, which produce the hormone calcitonin. Medullary tumors are the third most common of all thyroid cancers and together make up about 3% of all thyroid cancer cases. MTC was first characterized in 1959.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B</span> Medical condition

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B is a genetic disease that causes multiple tumors on the mouth, eyes, and endocrine glands. It is the most severe type of multiple endocrine neoplasia, differentiated by the presence of benign oral and submucosal tumors in addition to endocrine malignancies. It was first described by Wagenmann in 1922, and was first recognized as a syndrome in 1965-1966 by E.D. Williams and D.J. Pollock. It is caused by the pathogenic variant p.Met918Thr in the RET gene. This variant can cause medullary thyroid cancer and Pheochromocytoma. Presentation can include a Marfanoid body, enlarged lips, and ganglionueuromas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parathyroid carcinoma</span> Medical condition

Parathyroid carcinoma is a rare cancer resulting in parathyroid adenoma to carcinoma progression. It forms in tissues of one or more of the parathyroid glands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parathyroid disease</span> Medical condition

Many conditions are associated with disorders of the function of the parathyroid gland. Some disorders may be purely anatomical resulting in an enlarged gland which will raise concern. Such benign disorders, such as parathyroid cyst, are not discussed here. Parathyroid diseases can be divided into those causing hyperparathyroidism, and those causing hypoparathyroidism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hereditary cancer syndrome</span> Inherited genetic condition that predisposes a person to cancer

A hereditary cancer syndrome is a genetic disorder in which inherited genetic mutations in one or more genes predispose the affected individuals to the development of cancer and may also cause early onset of these cancers. Hereditary cancer syndromes often show not only a high lifetime risk of developing cancer, but also the development of multiple independent primary tumors.

References

  1. ↑ " multiple endocrine neoplasia " at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  2. ↑ Carney JA (Jun 1998). "Familial multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes: components, classification, and nomenclature". J. Intern. Med. 243 (6): 425–32. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1998.00345.x . PMID   9681839.
  3. ↑ Callender GG, Rich TA, Perrier ND (Aug 2008). "Multiple endocrine neoplasia syndromes". Surg. Clin. North Am. 88 (4): 863–95. doi:10.1016/j.suc.2008.05.001. PMID   18672144.
  4. ↑ Boyce, Alison M.; Collins, Michael T. (1993). "Fibrous Dysplasia/McCune-Albright Syndrome". In Adam, Margaret P.; Ardinger, Holly H.; Pagon, Roberta A.; Wallace, Stephanie E.; Bean, Lora J.H.; Mefford, Heather C.; Stephens, Karen; Amemiya, Anne; Ledbetter, Nikki (eds.). GeneReviews. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle. PMID   25719192.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Table 4-7 in:Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. (2008). Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series) . Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN   978-0-7817-7153-5.
  6. 1 2 Asgharian, B; Turner, ML; Gibril, F; Entsuah, LK; Serrano, J; Jensen, RT (November 2004). "Cutaneous tumors in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasm type 1 (MEN1) and gastrinomas: prospective study of frequency and development of criteria with high sensitivity and specificity for MEN1". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 89 (11): 5328–36. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0218 . PMID   15531478.
  7. ↑ Archived 2017-03-14 at the Wayback Machine 123I labeled metaiodobenzylguanidine for diagnosis of neuroendocrine tumors. Jiang L, Schipper ML, Li P, Cheng Z, Reports in Medical Imaging. 2009: 2 79-89
  8. ↑ Dora JM, Siqueira DR, Meyer EL, Puñales MK, Maia AL (November 2008). "Pancreatitis as the first manifestation of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A". Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 52 (8): 1332–6. doi: 10.1590/S0004-27302008000800021 . hdl: 10183/40059 . PMID   19169490.
  9. ↑ Marx, Stephen J (2011). "Chapter 41: Multiple endocrine neoplasia". In Melmed, Shlomo (ed.). Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 12th ed. pp. 1728–1767.
  10. ↑ Moline J, Eng C (2011). "Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: An overview". Genetics in Medicine. 13 (9): 755–764. doi: 10.1097/GIM.0b013e318216cc6d . PMID   21552134. S2CID   22402472.
  11. ↑ Martino Ruggieri (2005). Neurocutaneous Disorders : The Phakomatoses. Berlin: Springer. ISBN   978-3-211-21396-4. - Chapter: Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B by Electron Kebebew, Jessica E. Gosnell and Emily Reiff. Pages 695-701. This reference quotes a prevalence of 1 in 40,000, but this figure is inconsistent with the same reference's calculated incidence of 4 per 100 million per year for MEN2B.
  12. ↑ Wermer P (1954). "Genetic aspects of adenomatosis of endocrine glands". Am. J. Med. 16 (3): 363–71. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(54)90353-8. PMID   13138607.
  13. ↑ Sipple JH (1961). "The association of pheochromocytoma with carcinoma of the thyroid gland". Am. J. Med. 31: 163–6. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(61)90234-0.
  14. ↑ Schimke RN, Hartmann WH, Prout TE, Rimoin DL (1968). "Syndrome of bilateral pheochromocytoma, medullary thyroid carcinoma and multiple neuromas. A possible regulatory defect in the differentiation of chromaffin tissue". N. Engl. J. Med. 279 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM196807042790101. PMID   4968712.
  15. ↑ Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM): MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA, TYPE IV; MEN4 - 610755
  16. ↑ Pellegata NS, Quintanilla-Martinez L, Siggelkow H; Quintanilla-Martinez; Siggelkow; Samson; Bink; Hofler; Fend; Graw; Atkinson; et al. (Oct 2006). "Germ-line mutations in p27Kip1 cause a multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome in rats and humans". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (42): 15558–63. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10315558P. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0603877103 . PMC   1622862 . PMID   17030811.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. 1 2 3 "Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
  18. ↑ "Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1: In Familial Cancer Syndromes. DL Riegert-Johnson and others. NCBI 2009" . Retrieved 2009-09-01.
  19. ↑ "Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1 : In Familial Cancer Syndromes. DL Riegert-Johnson and others. NCBI 2009" . Retrieved 2009-09-11.
  20. ↑ "Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  21. ↑ "Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1: In Familial Cancer Syndromes. DL Riegert-Johnson and others. NCBI 2009" . Retrieved 2009-09-01.
  22. ↑ Germ-line , Mulligan LM, Kwok JB, Healey CS, Elsdon MJ, Eng C, Gardner E, Love DR, Mole SE, Moore JK, Papi L; et al. (Jun 1993). "Germ-line mutations of the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A". Nature. 363 (6428): 458–60. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..458M. doi:10.1038/363458a0. PMID   8099202. S2CID   4349714.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ↑ Guru, S. C.; Manickam, P.; Crabtree, J. S.; Olufemi, S. E.; Agarwal, S. K.; Debelenko, L. V. (1998). "Identification and characterization of the multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) gene". J Intern Med. 243 (6): 433–9. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1998.00346.x . PMID   9681840. S2CID   23149408.
  24. ↑ Carney JA (Feb 2005). "Familial multiple endocrine neoplasia: the first 100 years". Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 29 (2): 254–74. doi:10.1097/01.pas.0000147402.95391.41. PMID   15644784. S2CID   31430510.
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