Negros famine

Last updated

The Negros famine took place on Negros island in the Philippines in the mid-1980s, during the waning days of the Marcos dictatorship. [1] [2] It was a key moment in the history of sugar production in the Philippines, as well as the broader political history of the Philippines. Caused by the Marcos administration's efforts to control sugar production through the NASUTRA monopoly held by Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto and by a sudden crash in international sugar prices, it created what popularly came to be known as a "social volcano", with tensions culminating in the Escalante massacre, and with negative effects still felt even after the ouster of Ferdinand Marcos and his cronies during the 1986 People Power Revolution. [3] [4]

Contents

Background

Sugar production in the Philippines

The cultivation of sugarcane, specifically Saccharum sinense , in the Philippines pre-dates Spanish colonization, being one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples, which includes Filipinos. [5] [6] [7] [8] It was traditionally used for making various native jaggery products (collectively called panutsa , like pakombuk, sangkaka and bagkat bao) used in cooking. It was also widely used to make traditional wines like palek, byais, basi, intus, and pangasi, and its juice was also used to create vinegar. [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Sugarcane farming became an industry after 1856 when Russell & Sturgis [15] first opened a branch in Iloilo for the purpose of giving crop loans to sugar planters. [16] They offered liberal terms to a few Negrense planters, [16] which encouraged some prominent Ilonggo sugarcane planters like the Ledesma, Lacson, Hilado, Cosculluela, Pérez, Alvarez, Sotamayor and Escanilla families moved to Negros in the mid-1800s. The sugar products were exported to the United States, England, Australia and Spain. [16]

The industry continued to grow through the Philippines' colonial period and allowed a small group of Filipino families to accumulate wealth and status, and become part of the Philippines' social elite. [16]

The Marcos dictatorship

In 1965, two decades after the end of the Second World War and the subsequent recognition of the Philippines' independence in 1946, Ferdinand Marcos became the Philippines tenth president. Relying on foreign debt to fund an ambitious slate of programs and projects, Marcos became popular enough to become the first Philippine post-war president to win a second term as president. This second term, however, was marked by social unrest when his debt-driven spending and budget made the Philippine economy vulnerable to dramatic downturns in the global economy. Before the end of his second and last allowed term under the Constitution of the Philippines, Marcos held on to power by declaring martial law in 1972, and replacing the Constitution with a new one in 1973. Although he formally lifted martial law almost a decade later in 1981, Marcos still hold on to his martial law powers, remaining a dictator until he was ousted by the 1986 People Power Revolution. [4] [1] [17]

The National Sugar Trading Corporation monopoly

By the time Ferdinand Marcos' second term began, sugar had become a critical Philippine export, responsible for 27% of the country's total dollar earnings. [2] With international sugar prices rising rapidly through the early 1970s, Marcos decided to put domestic and international sugar trading under government control, first through the Philippine Exchange Co. (Philex), and later through the Philippine Sugar Commission (Philsucom) and its trading arm, the National Sugar Trading Corporation (NASUTRA) which were both controlled by Marcos crony Roberto Benedicto. [2]

However, the international price of sugar eventually dropped in a market crash, dramatically hurting the livelihood of poor farmers. [18] [19]

Onset of famine

The NASUTRA monopoly forced many sugar planters into bankruptcy or deep in debt. In 1984, over 190,000 sugar workers lost their livelihood, [20] [2] and about a million sacadas and their families in Negros suffered in what would later become known as the 1985 "Negros Famine." [21]

One of the factors that worsened the situation for the people of Negros was the overreliance on sugar as virtually the island's only agricultural crop (monoculture), with the Journal of the Senate of the Philippines noting that: [22] "practically the entire agricultural land of the province was devoted to sugarcane farms primarily in response to the lure of easy money and great profits from sugar which was then enjoying a privileged position in the world market."

By 1985, a survey by the National Nutrition Council of the Philippines estimated that about 350,000 children – 40 percent of Negros Occidental residents under the age of 14 – were suffering from malnutrition. [3]

Author John Silva, [23] who was working with Oxfam at the time, visited Negros and later described the living conditions of thousands of starving and malnourished children:

"I drove past the provincial hospital where I first saw hundreds of malnourished children on mats on the floors tended by their mothers, and later, we were in the country through cane fields and small towns remembering the skeletal children being weighed and assessed by our medical team.... There were over 100,000 children in various degree of malnutrition and we started a feeding program for 90,000 of them, hoping to save the worst cases." [23]

1985 infant death statistics at Bacolod City Hospital rose 67 percent, and Negros' infant mortality rose to nearly double the national average, with most of the deaths attributed to malnutrition. [24]

Social impact

Escalante massacre

Locally, social tensions were so high that the Bishop of Bacolod, Antonio Fortich described the conditions on the island as a "social volcano" ready to explode. [25] This was the situation on 20 September 1985, which marked the date of the Escalante massacre, in which paramilitary forces under the command of Marcos-allied Negros Occidental Governor Armando Gustilo gunned down farmers protesting social conditions on the 13th anniversary of the declaration of Martial Law. An estimated twenty or thirty farmers were killed, [26] [27] and thirty more were wounded. [26]

Press coverage

The Negros famine received a lot of media and institutional attention around the world. [3] Among the most iconic images of the famine was Kim Komenich's photograph of a boy named Joel Abong, which was part of the coverage by journalist Inday Espina-Varona, who wrote about the last days of Abong's life, before he succumbed to pneumonia, tuberculosis, and malnutrition. [28]

Multisectoral response

International, church, and non-governmental support

Alerted about the crisis by shocking media coverage, a multisectoral effort to mitigate the worst effects of the famine was launched. International relief agencies, local non-governmental organizations, and the Catholic Church conducted feeding programs, mobilized relief drives, and otherwise pitched in to help. [3]

People Power Revolution and reform through land distribution

The immediate impacts of the Negros famine were still being felt when Marcos was ousted by the People Power Revolution in 1986. Efforts to address hunger and malnutrition continued through the collaboration of the new Philippine government, the Catholic Church, and the international community. [3]

In the long term, however, the administration of President Corazon Aquino sought to redistribute land through the new Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law. It also put policies in place to diversify agricultural production on the island by polyculture. Under a "60-30-10 plan," 60% of Negros' agricultural lands would continue to be allocated to sugar, while 30% was allocated to other high-value export crops. The remaining 10% was earmarked for home gardens and contract growing. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Negros Occidental</span> Province in Western Visayas, Philippines

Negros Occidental, officially the Province of Negros Occidental (Hiligaynon: Kapuoran sang Nakatungdang Negros (Negros Occidental; Tagalog: Lalawigan ng Kanlurang Negros, is a province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Bacolod, of which it is geographically situated and grouped under by the Philippine Statistics Authority, but remains politically independent from the provincial government. It occupies the northwestern half of the large island of Negros, and borders Negros Oriental, which comprises the southeastern half. Known as the "Sugarbowl of the Philippines", Negros Occidental produces more than half the nation's sugar output.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antonio Fortich</span>

Antonio Yapsutco Fortich was the third bishop of the Diocese of Bacolod. He is noted for being a social activist who fought for social justice in Negros. In 2018, Fortich was recognized by the Human Rights Victims' Claims Board as a Motu Proprio victim of the Martial Law Era.

The Hiligaynon people, often referred to as Ilonggo people or Panayan people, are the second largest subgroup of the larger Visayan ethnic group, whose primary language is Hiligaynon, an Austronesian language of the Visayan branch native to Panay, Guimaras, and Negros. They originated in the province of Iloilo, on the island of Panay, in the region of Western Visayas. Over the years, inter-migrations and intra-migrations have contributed to the diaspora of the Hiligaynon to different parts of the Philippines. Today, the Hiligaynon, apart from the province of Iloilo, also form the majority in the provinces of Guimaras, Negros Occidental, Capiz, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, and North Cotabato.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of the Philippines (1965–1986)</span> Aspect of history

The history of the Philippines, from 1965 to 1986, covers the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos. The Marcos era includes the final years of the Third Republic (1965–1972), the Philippines under martial law (1972–1981), and the majority of the Fourth Republic (1981–1986). By the end of the Marcos dictatorial era, the country was experiencing a debt crisis, extreme poverty, and severe underemployment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Nutrition Council (Philippines)</span>

National Nutrition Council, abbreviated as NNC, is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of Health responsible for creating a conducive policy environment for national and local nutrition planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and surveillance using state-of the art technology and approaches.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fourth Philippine Republic</span> Filipino government (1981–1986)

The Fourth Philippine Republic, also known as the FourthRepublic of the Philippines was established after Ferdinand Marcos Sr won the June 16, 1981, Philippine Presidential Election. Marcos announced the beginning of the Fourth Republic on June 30, during his inauguration speech. On February 25, 1986, due to the 1986 EDSA Revolution, Marcos ended into exile in Hawaii and Corazon Aquino became the 11th president of the Philippines. The Fourth Republic would come to an end under Aquino's leadership, and the Fifth Republic would commence with the adoption of a new constitution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Escalante massacre</span> 1985 killing of protestors in the Philippines

The Escalante massacre was an incident on September 20, 1985, in Escalante, Negros Occidental, Philippines, where government paramilitary forces gunned down civilians engaged in a rally in commemoration of the 13th anniversary of the declaration of Martial Law. It is also called Escam - portmanteau of "Escalante" and "massacre", and sometimes Bloody Thursday, though the massacre occurred on a Friday.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sugarcane</span> Several species of grass cultivated for sugar production

Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of tall, perennial grass that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sucrose, which accumulates in the stalk internodes. Sugarcanes belong to the grass family, Poaceae, an economically important flowering plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum, and many forage crops. It is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea. Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totaling 1.9 billion tonnes in 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of the world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally. About 70% of the sugar produced comes from Saccharum officinarum and its hybrids. All sugarcane species can interbreed, and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">José Locsín</span>

José Certeza Locsín was a Philippine medical doctor and senator.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic history of the Philippines</span> Aspect of history

The economic history of the Philippines chronicles the long history of economic policies in the nation over the years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radio in the Philippines</span> Overview of radio in the Philippines

Radio in the Philippines refers to radio programs, radio stations, and radio broadcasting organizations in the country. Estimates on the number or radio stations range from 1,200 to 1,500.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sugar industry of the Philippines</span>

As of 2005, the Philippines was the ninth largest sugar producer in the world and second largest sugar producer among the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, after Thailand, according to Food and Agriculture Organization. At least seventeen provinces of the Philippines have grown sugarcane, of which the two on Negros Island account for half of the nation's total production. As of crop year 2009–2010, 29 sugar mills are operational divided as follows: thirteen mills on Negros, six mills on Luzon, four mills on Panay, three mills in Eastern Visayas and three mills on Mindanao.

The Marcos Japanese ODA Scandal, referred to in Japan simply as the Marukosu giwaku (マルコス疑惑), or "Marcos scandal", refers to incidents of alleged corruption linked to Japanese Official Development Assistance (ODA) to the Philippines during Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos' administration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Negros</span> Island in the Philippines

Negros is the fourth largest and third most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of 13,309 km2 (5,139 sq mi). Negros is one of the many islands of the Visayas, in the central part of the country. The predominant inhabitants of the island region are mainly called Negrenses. As of 2020 census, the total population of Negros is 4,656,945 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roberto Benedicto</span>

Roberto Salas Benedicto was a Filipino lawyer, ambassador, diplomat, and banker historically most remembered as a crony of President Ferdinand Marcos. Benedicto owned Philippine Exchange Company, the Philippines Daily Express, Radio Philippines Network (RPN), Banahaw Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (IBC). Benedicto was the Philippines' ambassador to Japan from 1972 to 1978.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos</span> 1972–1981 period in the Philippines

At 7:15 p.m. on September 23, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos announced on television that he had placed the entirety of the Philippines under martial law. This marked the beginning of a fourteen-year period of one-man rule that would effectively last until Marcos was exiled from the country on February 25, 1986. Even though the formal document proclaiming martial law—Proclamation No. 1081, which was dated September 21, 1972—was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, Marcos retained essentially all of his powers as dictator until he was ousted.

Certain associates of former Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos, historically referred to using the catchphrase "Marcos cronies", benefited from their friendship with Marcos – whether in terms of legal assistance, political favors, or facilitation of business monopolies, during his administration. Marcos critics, and the local and international press began referring to these individuals as "cronies" during the latter days of the Marcos dictatorship, and the Philippine government – especially the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) – continued using the term after the ouster of Marcos in 1986.

During the administration of former Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos (1965–1986) select businesses were favored and patronized by Marcos, receiving financial support, sole patronage, tax exemptions, and control over entire industries rendering these businesses as monopolies. Friends and relatives of Marcos acquired staggering wealth and economic power due to special favors and privileges extended by the administration. While Marcos associates enjoyed government bailout even during the decline of their firms, other businesses suffered high taxes, sanctions, and other unjust treatments that forced them to close up, or to sell their shares. The majority of monopolies linked to Ferdinand Marcos are managed by his close associates, also regarded as cronies by critics. Former First Lady Imelda Marcos insinuated that the Marcoses controlled the majority of the industries in the Philippines. In a 1988 interview, she stated, "We practically own everything in the Philippines—from electricity, telecommunications, airline, banking, beer and tobacco, newspaper publishing, television stations, shipping, oil and mining, hotels and beach resorts, down to coconut milling, small farms, real estate and insurance."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)</span> Aspect of history

The 21-year period of Philippine economic history during Ferdinand Marcos’ regime – from his election in 1965 until he was ousted by the People Power Revolution in 1986 – was a period of significant economic lows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violeta Marcos</span> Catholic Filipina Augustine nun (1937–2001)

Maria Violeta Marcos, was a Filipino Roman Catholic nun. She was best known as the co-founder and first director of the Augustinian Missionaries of the Philippines, and for her contributions to the resistance in opposition to the martial Law dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos - first through her diocesan social action involvements in Negros Occidental, and later as part of the human rights organization Task Force Detainees of the Philippines.

References

  1. 1 2 Francisco, Katerina (22 September 2016). "Martial Law, the dark chapter in Philippine history". Rappler. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Manapat, Ricardo (1991). Some are smarter than others: the history of Marcos' crony capitalism. New York: Aletheia Publications. ISBN   9719128704. OCLC   28428684.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Caña, Paul John (15 May 2021). "Sugar Wars: Looking Back at the Negros Famine of the 1980s". Esquiremag.ph. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
  4. 1 2 Tadem, Eduardo Climaco (3 July 2015). "Technocracy and the Peasantry: Martial Law Development Paradigms and Philippine Agrarian Reform". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 45 (3): 394–418. doi:10.1080/00472336.2014.983538. ISSN   0047-2336. S2CID   154354138.
  5. ↑ Blust, Robert (1984–1985). "The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective". Asian Perspectives. 26 (1): 44–67. hdl:10125/16918.
  6. ↑ Spriggs, Matthew (2 January 2015). "Archaeology and the Austronesian expansion: where are we now?". Antiquity. 85 (328): 510–528. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067910. S2CID   162491927.
  7. ↑ Aljanabi, Salah M. (1998). "Genetics, phylogenetics, and comparative genetics of Saccharum L., a polysomic polyploid Poales: Andropogoneae". In El-Gewely, M. Raafat (ed.). Biotechnology Annual Review. Vol. 4. Elsevier Science B.V. pp. 285–320. ISBN   9780444829719.
  8. ↑ Baldick, Julian (2013). Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan. I.B.Tauris. p. 2. ISBN   9780857733573.
  9. ↑ Sanchez, Priscilla C. (2008). Philippine Fermented Foods: Principles and Technology. UP Press. p. 124. ISBN   9789715425544.
  10. ↑ Demetrio, Feorillo Petronilo A. III (2012). "Colonization and Alcoholic Beverages of Early Visayans from Samar and Leyte". Malay. 25 (1): 1–18.
  11. ↑ Feraren, John Mychal. "Ten Proofs We Inherited Our Love for Drinking from Pre-Colonial Filipinos". Claire Delfin Media. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
  12. ↑ "Abs-Cbn Interactive, Ilocanos mark 200 yrs. of Basi Revolt".
  13. ↑ Gico, Emma T.; Ybarzabal, Evelyn R. "Indigenous Rice Wine Making in Central Panay, Philippines". Central Philippine University. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  14. ↑ Garcia, Ian Rav (28 February 2019). "Back in Maragusan". Mindanao Times.
  15. ↑ "We've moved".
  16. 1 2 3 4 "Sugar Industry History". Sugar Regulatory Administration. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
  17. ↑ "The Fall of the Dictatorship". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
  18. ↑ "Martial Law Museum" . Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  19. ↑ Branigin, William (28 March 1986). "Marcos Circle Said to Skim $1 Billion From Sugar Sales". Washington Post. ISSN   0190-8286 . Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  20. ↑ "Business in Philippines' sugar capital sours, leaving communists to prosper". Christian Science Monitor. 7 August 1985. ISSN   0882-7729 . Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  21. ↑ Quimpo, Susan F. "I saw martial law up close and personal" . Retrieved 27 May 2018.
  22. ↑ Journal of the Senate. Journal Division. 1993.
  23. 1 2 Silva, John (1 March 2016). "Never forget the famine in Negros". Bantayog ng mga Bayani. Archived from the original on 9 March 2019.
  24. ↑ Foreign assistance and related programs appropriations for 1988: hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, House of Representatives, One hundredth Congress, first session. U.S. Government Printing Office, United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Foreign Operations and Related Agencies. 1987.
  25. ↑ "Obituary: Antonio Fortich". The Economist. Retrieved 14 August 2022.
  26. 1 2 "Committee on Freedom of Association Report". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 22 May 2007.
  27. ↑ Supreme Court of the Philippines. "Philippine Jurisprudence – Arellano Law Foundation G.R. No. 70748 October 21, 1985 Laurente C. Ilagan vs. Juan Ponce Enrile". The LawPhil Project. Retrieved 22 May 2007.
  28. ↑ "[Opinion] Raping Sugarland". Rappler. 8 May 2022. Archived from the original on 8 May 2022. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.