List of presidents of the Philippines

Malacañang Palace in Manila is the official residence of the president. Built in 1750, it has become a prominent symbol of and metonym for the office.

Under the Constitution of the Philippines, the president of the Philippines (Filipino : Pangulo ng Pilipinas) is both the head of state and government, and serves as the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. ^{[3] [4]} The president is directly elected by qualified voters to a six-year term and must be "a natural-born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election". No elected president can seek re-election. Upon resignation, or removal from the office, the vice president assumes the post. A president's successor who hasn't served for more than four years can still seek a full term for the presidency. ^[5]

History

Emilio Aguinaldo became the inaugural president of the Philippines under the Malolos Republic, considered the First Philippine Republic. ^{[6] [note 2]} He held that office until 1901 when he was captured by United States forces during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902). ^[3] The American colonization of the Philippines abolished the First Republic, ^[11] which led to an American governor-general exercising executive power. ^[18]

In 1935, the United States, pursuant to its promise of full Philippine sovereignty, ^[19] established the Commonwealth of the Philippines following the ratification of the 1935 Constitution, which also restored the presidency. The first national presidential election was held, ^{[note 3]} and Manuel L. Quezon (1935–44) was elected to a six-year term, with no provision for re-election, ^[4] as the second Philippine president and the first Commonwealth president. ^{[note 2]} In 1940, however, the Constitution was amended to allow re-election but shortened the term to four years. ^[3] A change in government occurred three years later when the Second Philippine Republic was organized with the enactment of the 1943 Constitution, which Japan imposed after it occupied the Philippines in 1942 during World War II. ^[22] José P. Laurel acted as puppet president of the new Japanese-sponsored government; ^[23] his de facto presidency, ^[24] not legally recognized until the 1960s, ^[10] overlapped with that of the president of the Commonwealth, which went into exile. The Second Republic was dissolved after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945; the Commonwealth was restored in the Philippines in the same year with Sergio Osmeña (1944–46) as president. ^[3]

Manuel Roxas (1946–1948) followed Osmeña when he won the first post-war election in 1946. He became the first president of the independent Philippines when the Commonwealth ended on July 4 of that year. The Third Republic was ushered in and would cover the administrations of the next five presidents, the last of which was Ferdinand Marcos (1965–86), ^[3] who performed a self-coup by imposing martial law in 1972. ^[25] The dictatorship of Marcos saw the birth of the New Society (Filipino : Bagong Lipunan) and the Fourth Republic. His tenure lasted until 1986 when he was deposed in the People Power Revolution. The current constitution came into effect in 1987, marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic. ^[3]

Of the individuals elected as president, three died in office: two of natural causes (Manuel L. Quezon ^[26] and Manuel Roxas ^[27] ) and one in a plane crash (Ramon Magsaysay, 1953–57 ^[28] ). The longest-serving president is Ferdinand Marcos with 20 years and 57 days in office; he is the only president to have served more than two terms. The shortest is Sergio Osmeña, who spent 1 year and 300 days in office.

Two women have held the office: Corazon Aquino (1986–92), who ascended to the presidency upon the successful People Power Revolution of 1986, and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–10), who, as vice president, ascended to the presidency upon Estrada's resignation and was elected to a full six-year term in 2004.

Presidents

No.	Portrait	Name (Lifespan)	Party		Term	Election	Vice president	Era
1		Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964)		None	January 23, 1899 – April 19, 1901 [a] (2 years, 86 days)	1899 [b]	None [c]	First Republic
None [d]						– [e]	None	U.S. Military Government
						– [f]		U.S. Insular Government
2		Manuel L. Quezon (1878–1944)		Nacionalista	November 15, 1935 – August 1, 1944 [g] (8 years, 260 days)	1935	Sergio Osmeña (Nacionalista)	Commonwealth
						1941
3		Jose P. Laurel (1891–1959)		KALIBAPI	October 14, 1943 – August 17, 1945 [h] (1 year, 307 days)	1943 [i]	None [j]	Second Republic
4		Sergio Osmeña (1878–1961)		Nacionalista	August 1, 1944 – May 28, 1946 (1 year, 300 days)	1941	Vacant [k]	Commonwealth
5		Manuel Roxas (1892–1948)		Liberal	May 28, 1946 – April 15, 1948 [g] (1 year, 323 days)	1946	Elpidio Quirino (Liberal)
								Third Republic
6		Elpidio Quirino (1890–1956)		Liberal	April 17, 1948 – December 30, 1953 (5 years, 257 days)		Vacant [k]
						1949	Fernando Lopez (Liberal)
7		Ramon Magsaysay (1907–1957)		Nacionalista	December 30, 1953 – March 17, 1957 [g] (3 years, 77 days)	1953	Carlos P. Garcia (Nacionalista)
8		Carlos P. Garcia (1896–1971)		Nacionalista	March 18, 1957 – December 30, 1961 (4 years, 287 days)		None [k]
						1957	Diosdado Macapagal (Liberal)
9		Diosdado Macapagal (1910–1997)		Liberal	December 30, 1961 – December 30, 1965 (4 years)	1961	Emmanuel Pelaez (Liberal, later Nacionalista)
10		Ferdinand Marcos (1917–1989)		Nacionalista (until 1978)	December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986 [l] (20 years, 57 days)	1965	Fernando Lopez (Nacionalista)
						1969
								Martial Law
							None [m]
						1973 [n]
						1977 [n]
				KBL (from 1978)
						1981		Fourth Republic
							Vacant [o]
11		Corazon Aquino (1933–2009)		UNIDO (until 1988)	February 25, 1986 – June 30, 1992 (6 years, 126 days)	1986 [p]	Salvador Laurel (UNIDO, later Nacionalista)	Provisional Government
								Fifth Republic
				Independent (from 1988)
12		Fidel V. Ramos (1928–2022)		Lakas–NUCD	June 30, 1992 – June 30, 1998 (6 years)	1992	Joseph Estrada (NPC, later LAMMP)
13		Joseph Estrada (born 1937)		LAMMP	June 30, 1998 – January 20, 2001 [q] (2 years, 204 days)	1998	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (Lakas–NUCD)
14		Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (born 1947)		Lakas–CMD	January 20, 2001 – June 30, 2010 (9 years, 161 days)		Vacant [r]
							Teofisto Guingona Jr. (Lakas–NUCD, later independent)
						2004	Noli de Castro (independent)
15		Benigno Aquino III (1960–2021)		Liberal	June 30, 2010 – June 30, 2016 (6 years)	2010	Jejomar Binay (PDP–Laban, later UNA)
16		Rodrigo Duterte (born 1945)		PDP–Laban	June 30, 2016 – June 30, 2022 (6 years)	2016	Leni Robredo (Liberal)
17		Bongbong Marcos (born 1957)		PFP	June 30, 2022 – present (2 years, 158 days)	2022	Sara Duterte (Lakas–CMD/HNP)

Timeline

See also: List of presidents of the Philippines by time in office

Unofficial presidents

Andrés Bonifacio is considered by some historians to be the first president of the Philippines. He was the third Supreme President (Spanish: Presidente Supremo; Tagalog: Kataastaasang Pangulo) of the Katipunan secret society. Its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan went into open revolt in August 1896 (the Cry of Balintawak), Bonifacio transformed it into a revolutionary government with him as president. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacio's government was also known as the Tagalog Republic (Tagalog: Republika ng Katagalugan; Spanish: Republica Tagala). (Although the word Tagalog refers to a specific ethnicity, Bonifacio used it to denote all indigenous people in the Philippines in place of Filipino which had colonial origins.) ^{[30] [31] [32] [33] [34]}

Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sakay and Miguel Malvar y Carpio should also be included. ^[35] Miguel Malvar y Carpio continued Emilio Aguinaldo's leadership of the First Philippine Republic after the latter's capture until his own capture in 1902. Macario Sakay revived the Tagalog Republic in 1902 as a continuation of Bonifacio's Katipunan. They are both considered by some scholars as "unofficial presidents". Along with Bonifacio, Malvar and Sakay are not recognized as presidents by the Philippine government. ^{[36] [37]}

Emilio Aguinaldo is officially recognized as the first president of the Philippines, but this is based on his term of office during the Malolos Republic, later known as the First Philippine Republic. Prior to this Aguinaldo had held the presidency of several revolutionary governments which are not counted in the succession of Philippine republics.

Manuel L. Quezon delegated his presidential duties to José Abad Santos, the then Chief Justice, when the former fled the Philippines amidst Japanese occupation of the islands to establish a government-in-exile. He is believed to have in effect become the acting president of the Philippine Commonwealth though no legal document has been retrieved detailing the official transfer of the title of President to Abad Santos. ^[38]

List

Portrait	Name Lifespan	Party		Term		Vice President	Government
				Took office	Left office
	Andrés Bonifacio (1863–1897) [34] [39] [40] [41]		None	August 24, 1896 [s]	March 22, 1897 [t] or May 10, 1897 [u]	None	Sovereign Tagalog Nation
	Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964)		None	March 22, 1897 [v]	November 1, 1897 [w]	Mariano Trias	Tejeros revolutionary government
				November 2, 1897 [x]	December 14, 1897 [y]		Republic of Biak-na-Bato
				May 24, 1898	June 23, 1898 [z]		Dictatorial Government
				June 23, 1898 [aa] [42]	January 23, 1899 [ab]		Revolutionary Government
	Francisco Makabulos (1871–1922)		None	April 17, 1898	May 19, 1898 [ac]	None	Central Executive Committee
	Miguel Malvar (1865–1911) [43]		None	April 19, 1901 [ad]	April 16, 1902 [ae]	None [af]	First Republic
	Macario Sakay (1870–1907) [44] [45] [46]		Katipunan (holdout/revival)	May 6, 1902 [ag]	July 14, 1906 [ah]	Francisco Carreón	Tagalog Republic
	José Abad Santos (1886–1942) [38]		Independent	March 17, 1942	May 2, 1942	None	Commonwealth
	Jorge B. Vargas (1890–1980)		KALIBAPI Association for Service to the New Philippines	January 23, 1942	October 14, 1943	None	Philippine Executive Commission
	Arturo Tolentino (1910–2004) [47] [48]		Kilusang Bagong Lipunan New Society Movement	July 6, 1986 [ai]	July 8, 1986	None	Fourth Republic

Timeline

List of presidents by age

No.	President	Born	Age at start of presidency	Age at end of presidency	Post-presidency timespan	Lifespan
						Died	Age
1	Emilio Aguinaldo	March 22, 1869	29 years, 10 months, 1 day January 23, 1899	32 years, 22 days March 23, 1901	62 years, 10 months, 14 days	February 6, 1964	94 years
2	Manuel Quezon	August 19, 1878	57 years, 2 months, 27 days February 15, 1935	65 years, 11 months, 13 days August 1, 1944	Died in office	August 1, 1944	65 years
3	Jose P. Laurel	March 9, 1891	52 years, 7 months, 5 days October 14, 1943	54 years, 5 months, 8 days August 17, 1945	14 years, 2 months, 20 days	November 6, 1959	68 years
4	Sergio Osmeña	September 9, 1878	65 years, 10 months, 23 days August 1, 1944	67 years, 8 months, 19 days May 28, 1946	15 years, 4 months, 21 days	October 19, 1961	83 years
5	Manuel Roxas	January 1, 1892	54 years, 4 months, 27 days May 28, 1946	56 years, 3 months, 14 days April 15, 1948	Died in office	April 15, 1948	56 years
6	Elpidio Quirino	November 16, 1890	57 years, 5 months, 1 day April 17, 1948	63 years, 1 month, 14 days December 30, 1953	2 years, 1 month, 30 days	February 29, 1956	65 years
7	Ramon Magsaysay	August 31, 1907	46 years, 3 months, 29 days December 30, 1953	49 years old, 6 months, 14 days March 17, 1957	Died in office	March 17, 1957	49 years
8	Carlos P. Garcia	November 4, 1896	60 years, 5 months, 14 days March 18, 1957	65 years, 1 months, 26 days December 30, 1961	9 years, 5 months, 15 days	June 14, 1971	74 years
9	Diosdado Macapagal	September 28, 1910	51 years, 3 months, 2 days December 30, 1961	55 years, 3 months, 2 days December 30, 1965	31 years, 3 months, 22 days	April 21, 1997	86 years
10	Ferdinand E. Marcos	September 11, 1917	48 years, 3 months, 19 days December 30, 1965	68 years, 5 months, 14 days February 25, 1986	3 years, 7 months, 3 days	September 28, 1989	72 years
11	Corazon Aquino	January 25, 1933	53 years, 1 month February 25, 1986	59 years, 5 months, 5 days June 30, 1992	17 years, 1 months, 2 days	August 1, 2009	76 years
12	Fidel V. Ramos	March 18, 1928	64 years old, 3 months, 12 days June 30, 1992	70 years old, 3 months, 12 days June 30, 1998	24 years, 1 month, 1 day	July 31, 2022	94 years
13	Joseph Estrada	April 19, 1937	61 years, 2 months, 11 days June 30, 1998	63 years, 9 months, 1 day January 20, 2001	(Living)	(Living)	87 years, 230 days
14	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	April 5, 1947	53 years, 9 months, 15 days January 20, 2001	63 years, 2 months, 25 days June 30, 2010	(Living)	(Living)	77 years, 244 days
15	Benigno Aquino III	February 8, 1960	50 years, 4 months, 22 days June 30, 2010	56 years, 4 months, 22 days June 30, 2016	4 years, 21 months, 25 days	June 24, 2021	61 years
16	Rodrigo Duterte	March 28, 1945	71 years, 3 months, 2 days June 30, 2016	77 years, 3 months, 2 days June 30, 2022	(Living)	(Living)	79 years, 252 days
17	Bongbong Marcos	September 13, 1957	64 years, 9 months, 3 days June 30, 2022	(Incumbent)	(Incumbent)	(Living)	67 years, 83 days

List of presidents by offices held before presidency

Executive branch

Vice presidents

Vice President	President served under	Year(s) served	Notes
Sergio Osmeña	Manuel L. Quezon	1935–1944	Osmeña succeeded Quezon, after the latter's death
Elpidio Quirino	Manuel Roxas	1946–1948	Quirino succeeded Roxas, after the latter's death; Ran and won a full term in 1949.
Carlos P. Garcia	Ramon Magsaysay	1953–1957	Garcia succeeded Magsaysay, after the latter's death; Ran and won a full term in 1957.
Diosdado Macapagal	Carlos P. Garcia	1957–1961	Macapagal defeated Garcia in 1961.
Joseph Estrada	Fidel V. Ramos	1992–1998	Estrada ran for a full term in 1998.
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Joseph Estrada	1998–2001	Arroyo succeeded Estrada, after the latter's resignation; Ran and won a full term in 2004

3 other former vice presidents (S. Laurel, Binay, and Robredo) all made failed runs for the presidency.

Cabinet secretaries

The following cabinet secretaries are only served for fulltime. Vice Presidents served as cabinet secretary concurrently are not included.

Secretary	Office	President served under	Year(s) served
Elpidio Quirino	Secretary of Finance	Manuel Quezon	1934– 1936
	Secretary of Interior		1935–1938
Manuel Roxas			1941
Ramon Magsaysay	Secretary of National Defense	Elpidio Quirino	1935–1944
Fidel V. Ramos		Corazon Aquino	1988–1991

Other positions

Name	Office	President served under	Year(s) served
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Undersecretary of the Department of Trade and Industry	Corazon Aquino	1987–1992

Legislative

Senators

Senator	District	Year(s) served	Notes
Manuel L. Quezon	5th	1916–1935	First president to serve as Senate President (1916–1935)
Jose P. Laurel		1925–1931	Only former president to serve as senator (1951–1957);. Only senator served as Majority Floor Leader (1925–1931)
Sergio Osmeña	10th	1922–1935	First president served as President pro tempore (1922–1934)
Manuel Roxas	At-large	1945–1946	Second president served as Senate President (1916–1935)
Elpidio Quirino	1st	1925–1935	Second and last president served as President pro tempore (1945–1946)
	At-large	1945–1946
Carlos P. Garcia		1945–1953	First President served as Minority Floor Leader (1946–1953)
Ferdinand E. Marcos		1959–1965	Second President served as Minority Floor Leader (1960–1962). Third and last president served as Senate President (1963–1965)
Joseph Estrada		1987–1992
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo		1992–1998
Benigno Aquino III		2007–2010	Did not finish term, won presidency
Bongbong Marcos		2010–2016

Congressman/Representatives/Assemblyman

Legislator	District	Lower House Name	Year(s) served	Notes
Manuel L. Quezon	Tayabas 1st	Philippine Assembly	1907–1909	First president to serve as Majority Floor Leader (1907–1909)
Sergio Osmeña	Cebu 2nd		1907–1916	First President to serve as Speaker (1907–1916)
		House of Representatives	1916–1922
Manuel Roxas	Capiz 1st		1922–1935	Second president to serve as Majority Floor Leader;. Second president to serve as speaker (1922–1934)
		National Assembly	1935–1938
Elpidio Quirino	Ilocos Sur 1st	House of Representatives	1919–1925
Ramon Magsaysay	Zambales at-large		1946–1950
Carlos P. Garcia	Bohol 3rd		1925–1931
Diosdado Macapagal	Pampanga 1st		1949–1957
Ferdinand E. Marcos	Ilocos Norte 2nd		1949–1959
Benigno Aquino III	Tarlac 2nd		1998–2007	The only president to serve as Deputy Speaker (2004–2006)
Rodrigo Duterte	Davao City 1st		1998–2001
Bongbong Marcos	Ilocos Norte 2nd		1992–1995; 2007– 2010

Local government

Governors

Governor	Province	Year(s) served	Notes
Manuel Quezon	Tayabas	1906–1907
Sergio Osmeña	Cebu	1904–1907
Manuel Roxas	Capiz	1919–1922
Carlos P. Garcia	Bohol	1933–1941
Bongbong Marcos	Ilocos Norte	1983–1986; 1998–2007	Only president formerly served as Vice Governor (1980–1983)

Mayors

Mayor	City/Municipality	Year(s) served	Notes
Joseph Estrada	San Juan	1969–1986	Only former president served as mayor (2013–2019)
Rodrigo Duterte	Davao City	1988–1998; 2001–2010; 2013–2016	Only president served as Vice Mayor (1986–1987; 2010–2013)

Municipal/City Councilors

Name	Municipality/City	Province	Year(s) served
Manuel Quezon	Lucena	Tayabas	1906
Manuel Roxas	Capiz	Capiz	1917–1919

Judiciary

Name	Position	Year(s) served	President	Notes
Jose P. Laurel	Associate Justice of the Supreme Court	1936–1942	Manuel Quezon	Only president served in the Supreme Court

International Affairs-related

Name	Office	President served under	Year(s) served
Manuel Quezon	Resident Commissioner of the Philippines	None (Under American rule)	1909–1916

Presidents who had not previously held elective office

Without previous experience in government, but served in the military

Name	Year(s) served
Emilio Aguinaldo	1899–1901

Without previous experience in government or in the military

Name	Year(s) served
Corazon Aquino	1986–1992

List of presidents by military service

Name	Rank	Branch	Year(s) served	Notes
Emilio Aguinaldo	Generalissimo	Philippine Revolutionary Army	1896–1901
Manuel Quezon	Major	Philippine Revolutionary Army	1899–1900
Manuel Roxas	Brigadier General	Philippine Commonwealth Army	1941–1945
Ramon Magsaysay	Captain	Philippine Commonwealth Army	1942–1945
Ferdinand E. Marcos	1st Lieutenant	USAFFE	1942–1945
	Major	USAFIP-NL
Fidel V. Ramos	General	Philippine Constabulary	1950–1988	Only former President served as Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces (1984–1985; 1986–1988), and commander of a service branch (1972–1986).

Notes

1. The president has three official residences, with the Malacañang Palace Complex as the principal abode and workplace. ^[1] The others are Mansion House in Baguio, the official summer residence, ^[2] and Malacañang of the South, the official residence in Davao City.
2. In chronological order, the presidents started with Manuel L. Quezon, ^[7] who was then succeeded by Sergio Osmeña as the second president, ^[8] until the recognition of Emilio Aguinaldo ^[9] and José P. Laurel's ^[10] presidencies in the 1960s. ^{[subnote 1] [subnote 2]} With Aguinaldo as the first president and Laurel as the third, Quezon and Osmeña are thus listed as the second and the fourth, respectively. ^{[3] [17]}
3. Emilio Aguinaldo, the official first president, was elected by the Malolos Congress and not by popular vote. ^{[20] [21]}

Subnotes

1. The Malolos Republic, an independent revolutionary state that is actually the first constitutional republic in Asia, ^{[11] [12]} remained unrecognized by any country ^{[13] [14]} until the Philippines acknowledged the government as its predecessor, ^[15] which it also calls the First Philippine Republic. ^{[11] [9] [16]} Aguinaldo was consequently counted as the country's first president. ^{[6] [9]}
2. The Second Republic was later declared by the Supreme Court of the Philippines as a de facto, illegitimate government on September 17, 1945. ^[10] Its laws were considered null and void; ^{[3] [10]} despite this, Laurel was included in the official roster of Philippine presidents in the 1960s. ^[10]

Other notes

1. Date in which Aguinaldo formally swore allegiance to the United States and published a manifesto to the Philippine people to lay down their weapons after being captured by American forces in Palanan, Isabela in March 23 of the same year.
2. Elected by the Malolos Congress.
3. The 1899 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.
4. Executive authority was held by American military governors from August 14, 1898 until July 1, 1902 and by American governors-general from July 4, 1901 until November 15, 1935.
5. American military governors were appointed by the president of the United States exercising his powers as commander-in-chief.
6. American governors-general were appointed by the president of the United States, with advice and consent of the United States Senate.
7. Died in office.
8. Japanese-sponsored Second Republic dissolved following the surrender of Japan in World War II.
9. Elected by the National Assembly.
10. The 1943 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.
11. Under the 1935 Constitution, a vacancy in the vice presidency could not be filled.
12. Removed from office and went into exile following the People Power Revolution.
13. The 1973 Constitution abolished the vice presidency.
14. Ferdinand Marcos' term as president extended through a referendum.
15. The 1973 Constitution was amended in 1984 to restore the vice presidency, but an election was not called until 1986.
16. In the 1986 presidential election, Ferdinand Marcos was declared the winner by the Batasang Pambansa and the Commission on Elections, while Corazon Aquino was declared the winner by the National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections. The fraudulent conduct and disputed result of the election led to the People Power Revolution.
17. Resigned from office following the Second EDSA Revolution, with the Supreme Court confirming the constitutionality of his resignation on March 2, 2001. ^[29]
18. From January 20 until February 7, 2001.
19. Term began when Bonifacio declared the establishment of the Tagalog Republic.
20. Term ended after the Tejeros Convention.
21. Executed for treason by Aguinaldo's government; Bonifacio did not recognize its validity and still acted as president.
22. Term was established at the Tejeros Convention; Aguinaldo took his oath of office the day after (March 23), but did not fully assume the office until late April 1897.
23. Term ended with the establishment of the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
24. Term began after the establishment of the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.
25. Term ended when Aguinaldo signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.
26. Term ended when Aguinaldo shifted from dictatorial to revolutionary government.
27. Term began with the declaration of a revolutionary government replacing the dictatorship.
28. Term ended with the inauguration of the First Philippine Republic.
29. Term ended upon the return of Aguinaldo, who established a dictatorship.
30. Term began when Malvar presumptively assumed the presidency after the declaration of Aguinaldo to the United States.
31. Term ended when Malvar surrendered in Batangas.
32. The constitution at this time did not create an office of the vice president.
33. Term began when Sakay declared the establishment of the Tagalog Republic (in the tradition of Bonifacio instead of Aguinaldo).
34. Term ended when Sakay surrendered as part of an amnesty; he was executed a year later.
35. The running-mate of former President Ferdinand Marcos in the February 1986 presidential election. Proclaimed himself as acting president in a coup attempt.

See also

• List of vice presidents of the Philippines

References

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Works cited

• Agoncillo, Teodoro A.; Guerrero, Milagros C. (1970). History of the Filipino People (3rd ed.). Malaya Books.
• Chandler, David Porter; Steinberg, David Joel (1987). In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Revised ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN   0-8248-1110-0.
• Guevara, Sulpicio, ed. (2005) [1898]. The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899. Compiled, edited, and translated into English by Sulpicio Guevara. Manila: National Historical Institute (published 1972). ISBN   971-538-055-7 – via University of Michigan Library.
• Halili, Christine N; Halili, Maria Christine (2004), Philippine History, Rex Bookstore, ISBN   978-971-23-3934-9.
• Philippine Electoral Almanac (PDF) (Revised and expanded ed.). Manila: Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. 2015. ISBN   978-971-95551-6-2 – via Internet Archive.
• Tucker, Spencer, ed. (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish–American and Philippine–American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History. Vol. 1 (Illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-1-85109-951-1.

External links

• Presidential Website
• Office of the President of the Philippines
• Presidential Museum and Library
• Philippines at worldstatesmen.org+