Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll

Last updated

Aerial view of the Able test, a 23 kt (96 TJ) device detonated on July 1, 1946 at an altitude of 520 ft (160 m). Operation Crossroads - Able 001.jpg
Aerial view of the Able test, a 23  kt (96  TJ ) device detonated on July 1, 1946 at an altitude of 520 ft (160 m).
The size of the Castle Bravo test on March 1, 1954 far exceeded expectations, causing widespread radioactive contamination. The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India, and Japan, and even to the United States and parts of Europe. It was organized as a secret test, but it quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices. Castle Bravo Blast.jpg
The size of the Castle Bravo test on March 1, 1954 far exceeded expectations, causing widespread radioactive contamination. The fallout spread traces of radioactive material as far as Australia, India, and Japan, and even to the United States and parts of Europe. It was organized as a secret test, but it quickly became an international incident, prompting calls for a ban on the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices.
Map all coordinatesin "Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll" using: OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as:

Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll consisted of the detonation of 24 nuclear weapons by the United States between 1946 and 1958 on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Tests occurred at 7 test sites on the reef itself, on the sea, in the air, and underwater. [2] The test weapons produced a combined yield of about 75 Mt of TNT in explosive power.

Contents

The United States and its allies were engaged in a Cold War nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union to build more advanced bombs from 1947 until 1991. [3] The first series of tests over Bikini Atoll in July 1946 was codenamed Operation Crossroads. The first bomb, named Able, was dropped from an aircraft and detonated 520 ft (160 m) above the target fleet. The second, Baker, was suspended under a barge. It produced a large Wilson cloud and contaminated all of the target ships. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called the second test "the world's first nuclear disaster." [4] A third test, Charlie, was cancelled due to concerns over the lingering radiation from Baker's detonation.

The second series of tests in 1954 was codenamed Operation Castle. The first detonation was Castle Bravo, which tested a new design utilizing a dry-fuel thermonuclear bomb. It was detonated at dawn on March 1, 1954. Scientists miscalculated: the 15  Mt of TNT nuclear explosion far exceeded the expected yield of 4–8 Mt of TNT (6 predicted). [5] This was about 1,000 times more powerful than either of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. [6] The scientists and military authorities were shocked by the size of the explosion, and many of the instruments that they had put in place to evaluate the effectiveness of the weapon were destroyed. [3]

Authorities had promised the Bikini Atoll's residents that they would be able to return home after the nuclear tests. A majority of the island's family heads agreed to leave the island, and most of the residents were moved to the Rongerik Atoll and later to Kili Island. Both locations proved unsuitable to sustaining life, and the United States provides residents with on-going aid. Despite the promises made by authorities, these and further nuclear tests (Redwing in 1956 and Hardtack in 1958) rendered Bikini unfit for habitation, contaminating the soil and water, making subsistence farming and fishing too dangerous. The United States has paid more than $300 million into various trust funds to compensate the islanders and their descendants. [7] A 2016 investigation found radiation levels on Bikini Atoll as high as 639  mrem   yr −1 (6.39  mSv/a), well above the established safety standard for habitation. [8] [9] However, Stanford University scientists reported "an abundance of marine life apparently thriving in the crater of Bikini Atoll" in 2017. [10]

Preparation

Residents relocated

Members of the Seabees' 53rd Naval Construction Battalion build camera towers prior to atomic bomb testing on Bikini Atoll, July 1946. Seabees build camera tower on Bikini Atoll.jpg
Members of the Seabees' 53rd Naval Construction Battalion build camera towers prior to atomic bomb testing on Bikini Atoll, July 1946.
Chief Judah, island magistrate from Rongerik Atoll, with one of his subchiefs, August 1947 Chief Judah, island magistrate from Rongerik Atoll, with one of his subchiefs, August 1947 (DONALDSON 13).jpeg
Chief Judah, island magistrate from Rongerik Atoll, with one of his subchiefs, August 1947

In February 1946, the United States government forced the 167 Micronesian inhabitants of the atoll to temporarily relocate so that testing could begin on atomic bombs. [3] King Juda agreed to the request, announcing that "we will go believing that everything is in the hands of God." [3] Nine of the eleven family heads chose Rongerik as their new home. [11] Navy Seabees helped them to disassemble their church and community house and prepare to relocate to their new home. On March 7, 1946, (now known as Bikini Day) [12] the residents gathered their belongings and building supplies. They were transported 125 mi (201 km) eastward on Navy landing craft 1108 and LST 861 to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, [11] which was one-sixth the size of Bikini Atoll. [11] No one lived on Rongerik because it had an inadequate water and food supply, and also due to traditional beliefs that the island was haunted by the Demon Girls of Ujae. The Navy left them with a few weeks of food and water which soon proved inadequate. [3]

Military services

The Cross Spikes Club, painted by Navy artist Arthur Beaumont. Cross spikes club.jpg
The Cross Spikes Club, painted by Navy artist Arthur Beaumont.

The United States assembled a support fleet of 242 ships that provided quarters, experimental stations, and workshops for more than 42,000 personnel. The islands were primarily used as recreation and instrumentation sites. [14] Seabees built bunkers, floating dry docks, [15] 75 ft (23 m) steel towers for cameras and recording instruments, [16] and other facilities on the island to support the servicemen. These included the "Up and Atom Officer's Club" [17] and the "Cross Spikes Club", a bar and hang-out created by servicemen on Bikini Island between June and September 1946. The "club" was little more than a small open-air building which served alcohol to servicemen and provided outdoor entertainment, including a ping pong table. [18] The "Cross Spikes Club" was the only entertainment that the enlisted servicemen had access to during their June to September stay at Bikini. [19]

Ship graveyard

The Navy designated Bikini Atoll lagoon as a ship graveyard, then brought in 95 ships, [20] including carriers, battleships, cruisers, destroyers, submarines, attack transports, and landing ships. The proxy fleet would have comprised the sixth largest naval fleet in the world if the ships had been active. All carried varying amounts of fuel, and some carried live ordnance. [15]

Weapons tests

Twenty-four nuclear tests were conducted at Bikini Atoll. Three were cancelled. Bikini atoll test sites.jpg
Twenty-four nuclear tests were conducted at Bikini Atoll. Three were cancelled.
Map of Bikini Atoll as of 2008. The islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized by the nuclear tests. Bikini 2244493428 13643c6505 o.jpg
Map of Bikini Atoll as of 2008. The islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized by the nuclear tests.

Operation Crossroads

The Wilson cloud from test Baker, situated just offshore from Bikini Island at top of the picture. Crossroads baker explosion.jpg
The Wilson cloud from test Baker, situated just offshore from Bikini Island at top of the picture.

Crossroads consisted of two detonations, each with a yield of 23 kt of TNT (96 TJ). Able was detonated over Bikini on July 1, 1946 and exploded at an altitude of 520 ft (160 m), but was dropped by aircraft about 1,500 to 2,000 ft (460 to 610 m) off target. [14] It sank only five of the ships in the lagoon. Baker was detonated underwater at a depth of 90 ft (27 m) on July 25, sinking eight ships. [14] The second underwater blast created a large condensation cloud and contaminated the ships with more radioactive water than was expected. Many of the surviving ships were too contaminated to be used again for testing and were sunk. The air-borne nuclear detonation raised the surface seawater temperature by 99,000 °F (55,000 °C), created blast waves with speeds of up to 26 ft/s (7.9 m/s)[ unreliable source? ], and shock and surface waves up to 98 ft (30 m) high. Blast columns reached the floor of the lagoon, which is approximately 230 ft (70 m) deep. [2]

Charlie was planned for 1947 but was canceled primarily because of the Navy's inability to decontaminate the target ships after the Baker test. Charlie was rescheduled as Operation Wigwam, a deep water shot conducted in 1955 off the California coast.

Castle Bravo test

The next series of tests over Bikini Atoll was codenamed Operation Castle. The first test of that series was Castle Bravo, a new design utilizing a dry fuel thermonuclear bomb. It was detonated at dawn on March 1, 1954.

The explosion yielded 15 Mt of TNT, far exceeding the expected yield of 4 to 8 Mt of TNT (6 predicted), [5] and was about 1,000 times more powerful than each of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The device was the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated by the United States and just under one-third the energy of the Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear device ever tested. The scientists and military authorities were shocked by the size of the explosion, and it destroyed many of the instruments put in place to evaluate the effectiveness of the test. [3]

Castle Bravo contamination

The unexpectedly large yield led to the most significant radiological contamination caused by the United States. A few minutes after the detonation, blast debris began to fall on Eneu/Enyu Island on Bikini Atoll where the crew who fired the device were located. Their Geiger counters detected the unexpected fallout, and they were forced to take shelter indoors for a number of hours before it was safe for an airlift rescue operation. [22]

The fallout continued to spread across the inhabited islands of the Rongelap, Rongerik, and Utrik Atolls. The inhabitants of Rongelap and Rongerik Atolls were evacuated by servicemen two days after the detonation, but the residents of the more distant Utrik Atoll were not evacuated for three days. [23] [24] Many of them soon began to show symptoms of acute radiation syndrome. They returned to the islands three years later but were forced to relocate again when the islands were found to be unsafe. [25]

The fallout gradually dispersed around the globe, depositing traces of radioactive material in Australia, India, Japan, and parts of the United States of America and Europe. It had been organized as a secret test, but Castle Bravo quickly became an international incident prompting calls for a ban on atmospheric testing of thermonuclear weapons. [1]

Local populations affected

The Rongelap Atoll was coated with up to .8 in (2.0 cm) of snow-like irradiated calcium debris and ash over the entire island. Virtually all the inhabitants experienced severe radiation sickness, including itchiness, sore skin, vomiting, diarrhea, and fatigue. Their symptoms also included burning eyes and swelling of the neck, arms, and legs. [26] [27] They were forced to abandon the islands three days after the tests, leaving behind all their belongings. The U.S. government relocated them to Kwajalein for medical treatment. [27] [28] [29]

Six days after the Castle Bravo test, the government set up a secret project to study the medical effects of the weapon on the residents of the Marshall Islands. [30] The United States was subsequently accused of using the inhabitants as medical research subjects without obtaining their consent to study the effects of nuclear exposure. [26] Until that time, the Atomic Energy Commission had given little thought to the potential impact of widespread fallout contamination and health and ecological impacts beyond the formally designated boundary of the test site.[ citation needed ]

Japanese fishermen contaminated

The head of one of the crew members of Daigo Fukuryu Maru showing radiation burns caused by fallout that collected in his hair; dated April 7, 1954, 38 days after the nuclear test The head of the crew of Daigo Fukuryu-maru.JPG
The head of one of the crew members of Daigo Fukuryū Maru showing radiation burns caused by fallout that collected in his hair; dated April 7, 1954, 38 days after the nuclear test

Ninety minutes after the detonation, 23 crew members of the Japanese fishing boat the Daigo Fukuryū Maru ("Lucky Dragon No. 5") [31] were contaminated by the snow-like irradiated debris and ash. They had no idea what the explosion was and no understanding of the debris that rained down like snow, but they all soon became ill with the effects of acute radiation sickness. One fisherman died about six months later while under doctor supervision; his cause of death was ruled a pre-existing liver cirrhosis compounded by a hepatitis C infection. [32] [ better source needed ] The majority of medical experts believe that the crew members were infected with hepatitis C through blood transfusions during part of their acute radiation syndrome treatment. [33]

Edward Teller was one of the driving minds behind the development of the hydrogen bomb and an architect of the Marshall Island tests. After the mass media painted the fisherman's death as an anti-nuclear call to arms, Teller notoriously commented, "It's unreasonable to make such a big deal over the death of a fisherman." [34]

Later tests

The 17-shot Redwing series followed—11 tests at Enewetak Atoll and six at Bikini. The island residents had been promised that they would be able to return home to Bikini, but the government thwarted that indefinitely by deciding to resume nuclear testing at Bikini in 1954. During 1954, 1956, and 1958, 21 more nuclear bombs were detonated at Bikini, yielding a total of 75 Mt of TNT (310 PJ), equivalent to more than three thousand Baker bombs. The 3.8 Mt of TNT Redwing Cherokee test was the only air burst. Air bursts distribute fallout in a large area, but surface bursts produce intense local fallout. [35] These tests were followed by the 33-shot Hardtack tests, which began in late April 1958. [36] The last of ten tests were detonated on Bikini Atoll on July 22, 1958. [36]

Shipwrecks

Shipwrecks in the lagoon include:

Nuclear test detonations at Bikini Atoll

The following above-ground nuclear device tests were conducted on or near Bikini Atoll from 1946 to 1958, comprising 15.1 % of total test yield worldwide. These dates are given in US Eastern time zone The days of the week are a day earlier than they were at Bikini.

SeriesTest DateNamesLocationDeviceYield PredictedYield Actual
Crossroads 24 July 1946BakerNE Lagoon, Bikini Atoll
11°35′N165°30′E / 11.59°N 165.50°E / 11.59; 165.50 (Baker) 		Helen of Bikini
Mk III 		21 kt of TNT
30 June 1946AbleNE Lagoon, Bikini Atoll
11°35′N165°30′E / 11.59°N 165.50°E / 11.59; 165.50 (Able) 		Gilda
Mk III		21 kt of TNT23 kt of TNT
1 August 1946Charlie
(cancelled)		NE Lagoon, Bikini Atoll
11°45′N165°31′E / 11.75°N 165.51°E / 11.75; 165.51 (Charlie) 		Mk III21 kt of TNT—
Castle 1 March 1954 Bravo Artificial island on reef 2,950 feet (900 m)
from Namu Island
11°41′50″N165°16′29″E / 11.69722°N 165.27486°E / 11.69722; 165.27486 (Bravo) 		Shrimp
TX-21		4–8 Mt of TNT15 Mt of TNT
25 April 1954 Union Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°39′59″N165°23′14″E / 11.6664°N 165.3872°E / 11.6664; 165.3872 (Union) 		Alarm Clock
EC-14		3–4 Mt of TNT6.9 Mt of TNT
4 May 1954 Yankee I
(cancelled)		Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°39′56″N165°23′13″E / 11.6656°N 165.3869°E / 11.6656; 165.3869 (Yankee 2) 		Jughead/Runt-II
TX/EC-16/TX/EC-24		——
27 April 1954 Yankee II Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°39′56″N165°23′13″E / 11.6656°N 165.3869°E / 11.6656; 165.3869 (Yankee 2) 		Ramrod
TX-22		8 Mt of TNT13.5 Mt of TNT
27 March 1954 Romeo Yurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°41′39″N165°15′55″E / 11.69428°N 165.26519°E / 11.69428; 165.26519 (Romeo) 		Runt
TX/EC-17A		4 Mt of TNT11 Mt of TNT
7 April 1954 Koon Eninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°30′14″N165°22′07″E / 11.50376°N 165.36852°E / 11.50376; 165.36852 (Koon) 		Morgenstern
TX-22		1 Mt of TNT110 kt of TNT (fizzle)
Redwing 20 May 1956CherokeeNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°44′23″N165°20′23″E / 11.73973°N 165.33985°E / 11.73973; 165.33985 (Cherokee) 		TX-15-X1 3.8 Mt of TNT3.8 Mt of TNT
27 May 1956ZuniEninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°30′12″N165°22′14″E / 11.50325°N 165.37049°E / 11.50325; 165.37049 (Zuni) 		Mk-41 3.5 kt of TNT3.5 Mt of TNT
6 June 1956FlatheadEninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°30′12″N165°22′14″E / 11.50325°N 165.37049°E / 11.50325; 165.37049 (Zuni) 		TX-28S 365 kt of TNT
11 June 1956TewaYurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°40′44″N165°20′26″E / 11.67896°N 165.34042°E / 11.67896; 165.34042 (Tewa) 		Mk-41
Bassoon		3.5 Mt of TNT
25 June 1956DakotaNE Lagoon, Bikini Atoll
11°36′10″N165°27′05″E / 11.6028°N 165.4514°E / 11.6028; 165.4514 (Dakota) 		TX-28C 1.1 Mt of TNT
10 July 1956NavajoNE Lagoon, Bikini Atoll
11°41′15″N165°22′57″E / 11.68743°N 165.38263°E / 11.68743; 165.38263 (Navajo) 		TX21C 4.5 Mt of TNT
Hardtack 1 28 April 1958YuccaBikini and Enewetak Atolls
12°37′01″N167°01′30″E / 12.617°N 167.025°E / 12.617; 167.025 (Yucca) 		W-25 1.7 kt of TNT
11 May 1958FirNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°41′27″N165°16′24″E / 11.6908°N 165.2733°E / 11.6908; 165.2733 (Fir) 		1.4 Mt of TNT
21 May 1958NutmegEninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°30′13″N165°22′20″E / 11.50355°N 165.3722°E / 11.50355; 165.3722 (Nutmeg) 		early XW-47?25.1 kt of TNT
31 May 1958SycamoreNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°41′50″N165°16′29″E / 11.69722°N 165.27486°E / 11.69722; 165.27486 (Sycamore) 		TX-41 92 kt of TNT
10 June 1958MapleYurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°41′29″N165°24′57″E / 11.6915°N 165.41582°E / 11.6915; 165.41582 (Maple) 		213 kt of TNT
14 June 1958AspenNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°41′27″N165°16′24″E / 11.6908°N 165.2733°E / 11.6908; 165.2733 (Aspen) 		XW-47  ?319 kt of TNT
27 June 1958RedwoodYurochi aka Irioj (Dog), Bikini Atoll
11°41′29″N165°24′57″E / 11.6915°N 165.41582°E / 11.6915; 165.41582 (Redwood) 		XW-47  ?412 kt of TNT
29 June 1958HickoryEninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°29′46″N162°22′15″E / 11.4961°N 162.3708°E / 11.4961; 162.3708 (Hickory) 		XW-47  ?14 kt of TNT
2 July 1958CedarNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°41′50″N165°16′29″E / 11.69722°N 165.27486°E / 11.69722; 165.27486 (Cedar) 		220 kt of TNT
12 July 1958PoplarNamu (Charlie), Bikini Atoll
11°41′49″N165°16′01″E / 11.69704°N 165.26708°E / 11.69704; 165.26708 (Poplar) 		TX-41 9.3 Mt of TNT
22 July 1958JuniperEninmen (Tare), Bikini Atoll
11°30′13″N165°22′20″E / 11.50355°N 165.3722°E / 11.50355; 165.3722 (Juniper) 		XW-47 65 kt of TNT, Final Bikini atmospheric shot
August 1958Piñon
(cancelled)		Bikini and Enewetak Atolls
12°N162°E / 12°N 162°E / 12; 162 (Piñon) 		———
Total 78.527 Mt of TNT

Relocation issues

Strategic Trust Territory

In 1947, the United States petitioned the United Nations Security Council to designate the islands of Micronesia a United Nations Strategic Trust Territory. This was the only strategic trust ever granted by the Security Council. [36] The U.S. Navy controlled the trust from a headquarters in Guam until 1951, when the Department of the Interior took over control, administering the territory from a base in Saipan. [37] The directive stipulated that the U.S. would "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants" and "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources". [3]

Group of Rongerik Island natives waiting for food to be distributed by Captain Christian Engleman, summer 1947 Group of Rongerik Island natives waiting for food to be distributed by Captain Engleman, summer 1947 (DONALDSON 130).jpeg
Group of Rongerik Island natives waiting for food to be distributed by Captain Christian Engleman, summer 1947

The residents of Bikini Atoll were left alone on Rongerik Atoll from July 1946 through July 1947. Leonard E. Mason was an anthropologist from the University of Hawaii; he visited the islanders on Rongerik Atoll in January 1948 and found that they were starving. [15] A team of U.S. investigators concluded in late 1947 that the islanders must be moved immediately. Press from around the world harshly criticized the U.S. Navy for ignoring them. Columnist Harold Ickes wrote that "the natives are actually and literally starving to death." [3]

The Navy then selected Ujelang Atoll for their temporary home, and some young men from the Bikini Atoll population went ahead to begin constructing living accommodations. But U.S. Trust Authorities decided to use Enewetak Atoll as a second nuclear weapons test site, and they relocated Enewetak's residents to Ujelang Atoll to the homes built for the Bikini Islanders. [3]

In March 1948, 184 malnourished Bikini islanders were temporarily relocated again to Kwajalein Atoll. [36] In June 1948, the Bikini residents chose Kili Island as a long-term home. [3] The 200 acres (81 ha) (.036 square miles (0.093 km2)) island is one of the smallest in the Marshall Island chain; it was uninhabited and was not ruled by a paramount iroij (king). The Bikini islanders moved there in November 1948. [3]

Return to Bikini Island

President Lyndon B. Johnson promised the 540 Bikini Atoll families living on Kili and other islands in June 1968 that they would be able to return to their home, based on scientific advice that the radiation levels were sufficiently reduced. But the Atomic Energy Commission learned that the coconut crabs, an essential food source, retained high levels of radioactivity and could not be eaten. The Bikini Council voted to delay a return to the island as a result. [3]

In 1987, a few Bikini elders returned to the island to re-establish old property lines. Construction crews began building a hotel on Bikini and installed generators, desalinators, and power lines. A packed coral and sand runway still exists on Enyu Island. A few extended families began moving back to their home island in the early 1970s despite the risk, eventually totaling about 100 people. But 10 years later, a team of French scientists found that some wells were too radioactive for use and determined that the pandanus and breadfruit were also dangerous for human consumption. Women were experiencing miscarriages, stillbirths, and genetic abnormalities in their children. [38] [39] The U.S.-administered Strategic Trust Territory decided that the islanders had to be evacuated from the atoll a second time. [25]

Second evacuation

An 11-year-old boy who was born on Bikini in 1971 died from cancer that was linked to radiation exposure that he received on Bikini. The records obtained by the Marshallese Nuclear Claims Tribunal later revealed that Dr. Robert Conard, head of Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL)'s medical team in the Marshall Islands, understated the risk of returning to the atoll. [40] BNL then contracted Dr. Konrad Kotrady to treat the Marshall Island residents. In 1977, he wrote a 14-page report to BNL that questioned the accuracy of Brookhaven's prior work on the islands. [40] The Bikini Atoll islanders grew to distrust the official reports of the U.S. scientists. [40]

The special International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Bikini Advisory Group determined in 1997 that it was "safe to walk on all of the islands" and that the residual radioactivity was "not hazardous to health at the levels measured". They further stated that "the main radiation risk would be from the food", but they also added that "eating coconuts or breadfruit from Bikini Island occasionally would be no cause for concern". IAEA estimated that living in the atoll and consuming local food would result in an effective dose of about 15 mSv/a. [41]

The leaders of the Bikini community have insisted since the early 1980s that the top 15 inches (38 cm) of soil should be excavated from the entire island. Scientists reply that removing the soil would rid the island of cesium-137, but it would also severely damage the environment, turning the atoll into a virtual wasteland of windswept sand. The Bikini Council has repeatedly contended that removing the topsoil is the only way to guarantee safe living conditions for future generations. [42]

In 1997, researchers found that the dose received from background radiation on the island was between 2.4 mSv/a—the same as natural background radiation—and 4.5 mSv/a, assuming that residents consumed a diet of imported foods. [43] The local food supply is still irradiated and the group did not recommend resettling the island. A 1998 IAEA report found that Bikini should not be permanently resettled because of dangerous levels of radiation in the locally produced food. A permanent rehabitation would likely require the use of potassium fertilizer. [44]

A 2002 survey found that the coral inside the Bravo Crater has partially recovered. [45] Zoe Richards of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies and James Cook University observed matrices of branching Porites coral up to 8 m high. [46]

Compensation and reparations

The Bikini islanders sued the United States for the first time in 1975, and they demanded a radiological study of the northern islands. [47] The United States set up The Hawaiian Trust Fund for the People of Bikini in 1975, totaling $3 million. Residents were removed from the island in 1978, and the government added $3 million to the fund and created The Resettlement Trust Fund for the People of Bikini, containing $20 million in 1982. The government added another $90 million to that fund to pay to clean up, reconstruct homes and facilities, and resettle the islanders on Bikini and Eneu islands. [48]

In 1983, the U.S. and the Marshall islanders signed the Compact of Free Association which gave the Marshall Islands independence. The Compact became effective in 1986 and was subsequently modified by the Amended Compact that became effective in 2004. [49] It also established the Nuclear Claims Tribunal, which was given the task of adjudicating compensation for victims and families affected by the nuclear testing program. Section 177 of the compact provided for reparations to the Bikini islanders and other northern atolls for damages. It included $75 million to be paid over 15 years. [48] On March 5, 2001, the Nuclear Claims Tribunal ruled against the United States for damages done to the islands and its people. [3]

The payments began in 1987 with $2.4 million paid annually to the entire Bikini population, while the remaining $2.6 million is paid into The Bikini Claims Trust Fund. This trust is intended to exist in perpetuity and to provide the islanders a 5 % payment from the trust annually. [48] The United States provided $150 million in compensation for damage caused by the nuclear testing program and their displacement from their home island. [7]

By 2001, 70 of the 167 relocated residents were still alive, and the entire population had grown to 2,800. [15] Most of the islanders and their descendants live on Kili, in Majuro, or in the United States. Only a few living people were born on the Bikini Atoll. Most of the younger descendants have never lived there or even visited. The population is growing at a four percent growth rate, so increasing numbers are taking advantage of terms in the Marshall Islands' Compact of Free Association that allow them to obtain jobs in the United States. [20]

Recovery of marine ecosystem

Stanford University professor Steve Palumbi led a study in 2017 that reported on ocean life that seems highly resilient to the effects of radiation poisoning. [10] [50] The team described substantial diversity in the marine ecosystem, with animals appearing healthy to the naked eye. According to Palumbi, the atoll's "lagoon is full of schools of fish all swirling around the living coral. In a strange way they are protected by the history of this place, the fish populations are better than in some other places because they have been left alone, the sharks are more abundant and the coral are big. It is a remarkable environment, quite odd." [10] Both corals and long-lived animals such as coconut crabs should be vulnerable to radiation-induced cancers, [51] and understanding how they have thrived might lead to discoveries about preserving DNA. Pambuli notes that the Bikini Atoll is "an ironic setting for research that might help people live longer". [52] [53] PBS documented field work undertaken by Palumbi and his graduate student Elora López on Bikini Atoll for the second episode ("Violent") of their series Big Pacific. [51] [54] The episode explored "species, natural phenomena and behaviors of the Pacific Ocean" and the way that the team is using DNA sequencing to study the rate and pattern of any mutations. [53] López suggested possible explanations for the health of the marine life to The Stanford Daily, such as a mechanism for DNA repair that is superior to that possessed by humans, or a method of maintaining a genome in the face of nuclear radiation. [55]

The area has effectively become an unplanned marine-life sanctuary; this has also occurred in Europe in the Chernobyl exclusion zone, [56] where scientists are studying the effects of radiation on animal life. Most fish have relatively short lifespans, and Palumbi suggested that "it is possible the worst-affected fish died off many decades ago… and the fish living in Bikini Atoll today are only subject to low levels of radiation exposure as they frequently swim in and out of the atoll." [10] Nurse sharks have two dorsal fins, but Palumbi's team observed individuals with only a single fin, and they theorized that they might be mutations. [51] [53] Pambuli and his team have focussed on the hubcap-sized crabs, as their coconut diet is contaminated with radioactive caesium-137 from ground water, [52] [55] and on the corals, because both have longer life spans that allow the scientists "to delve into what effect the radiation exposure has had on the animals' DNA after building up in their systems for many years." [10]

Bikini Atoll remains uninhabitable for humans due to what United Nations reporter Călin Georgescu described as "near-irreversible environmental contamination". [57] Gamma radiation levels in 2016 averaged 184  mrem   yr −1 (1.84 mSv/a), [8] well above the maximum allowed for human habitation, [9] thereby rendering the water, seafood, and plants unsafe for human consumption. [10] Timothy Jorgensen reports on the increased cancer risk among the residents of the nearby islands, especially for leukemia and thyroid cancers. [58]

Health impacts

The Castle Bravo test produced the highest fallout levels in history. [59] The detonation produced an explosion approximately 2.5 times the predicted 6.0 megatons, equal to 15 Mt of TNT. [5] The residents of Rongelap and Utirik atolls were exposed to high levels of radiation, the heaviest of which was in the form of pulverized surface coral from the detonation. They experienced mild radiation sickness including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Several weeks later many people began suffering from alopecia (hair loss) and skin lesions. [60] The fallout was the source of most people's radiation exposure, which has been linked to increases in leukemia and thyroid cancer. [58] [61] Residents of the Marshall Islands who received significant exposure to radionuclides incurred a much greater risk of developing cancer. [61] There is a presumed association between radiation levels and female reproductive system functioning. [62] [ better source needed ]

The female population of the Marshall Islands have a sixty times greater cervical cancer mortality than a comparable mainland United States population. [63] [ better source needed ] The Islands populations also have a five times greater likelihood of breast or gastrointestinal mortality, and lung cancer mortality is three times higher than the mainland population. [63] [ better source needed ] The male population on the Marshall Islands' lung cancer mortality is four times greater than the overall United States rates, and the oral cancer rates are ten times greater. [63] [ better source needed ] Fallout produced from nuclear tests affected the residents externally and internally. External irradiation was caused by gamma rays that originated from fallout on the ground. While the levels of external radiation exposure can be reduced by sheltering indoors, the islanders spent most of their time outside. Internal exposure to radiation can occur through inhalation, ingestion, and skin exposure. The greatest exposure is from consuming contaminated food like coconut, pandanus, papaya, banana, arrowroot, taro, limes, breadfruit, and the ducks, pigs, and chickens raised on the islands. [59] [ failed verification ]

Food shipped into the islands could also be irradiated by contaminated cooking utensils. Iodine-131, a highly radioactive isotope, can be ingested or inhaled and is concentrated in a person's thyroid. [61]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear fallout</span> Residual radioactive material following a nuclear blast

Nuclear fallout is the residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a nuclear blast, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion and the shock wave has passed. It commonly refers to the radioactive dust and ash created when a nuclear weapon explodes. The amount and spread of fallout is a product of the size of the weapon and the altitude at which it is detonated. Fallout may get entrained with the products of a pyrocumulus cloud and fall as black rain. This radioactive dust, usually consisting of fission products mixed with bystanding atoms that are neutron-activated by exposure, is a form of radioactive contamination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bikini Atoll</span> Coral atoll in the Marshall Islands

Bikini Atoll, known as Eschscholtz Atoll between the 1800s and 1946, is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a 229.4-square-mile (594.1 km2) central lagoon. The Atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately 530 miles (850 km) northwest of the capital Majuro.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Crossroads</span> 1946 nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll

Operation Crossroads was a pair of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. They were the first nuclear weapon tests since Trinity on July 16, 1945, and the first detonations of nuclear devices since the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. The purpose of the tests was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear weapons testing</span> Controlled detonation of nuclear weapons for scientific or political purposes

Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the performance, yield, and effects of nuclear weapons. Testing nuclear weapons offers practical information about how the weapons function, how detonations are affected by different conditions, and how personnel, structures, and equipment are affected when subjected to nuclear explosions. However, nuclear testing has often been used as an indicator of scientific and military strength. Many tests have been overtly political in their intention; most nuclear weapons states publicly declared their nuclear status through a nuclear test.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Castle</span> Series of 1950s US nuclear tests

Operation Castle was a United States series of high-yield (high-energy) nuclear tests by Joint Task Force 7 (JTF-7) at Bikini Atoll beginning in March 1954. It followed Operation Upshot–Knothole and preceded Operation Teapot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rongelap Atoll</span> Coral atoll in the Marshall Islands

Rongelap AtollRONG-gə-lap is an uninhabited coral atoll of 61 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is 8 square miles (21 km2). It encloses a lagoon with an area of 1,000 square miles (2,600 km2). It is historically notable for its close proximity to US hydrogen bomb tests in 1954, and was particularly devastated by fallout from the Castle Bravo test. The population asked the US to move them from Rongelap following the test due to high radiation levels with no success so they asked global environmental group Greenpeace to help. The Rainbow Warrior made four trips moving the islanders, their possessions and their homes to the island of Mejato in the Kwajalein Atoll, 180 kilometers away.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Castle Bravo</span> 1954 U.S. thermonuclear weapon test in the Marshall Islands

Castle Bravo was the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Castle. Detonated on March 1, 1954, the device remains the most powerful nuclear device ever detonated by the United States and the first lithium deuteride-fueled thermonuclear weapon tested using the Teller-Ulam design. Castle Bravo's yield was 15 megatonnes of TNT (63 PJ), 2.5 times the predicted 6 megatonnes of TNT (25 PJ), due to unforeseen additional reactions involving lithium-7, which led to radioactive contamination in the surrounding area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Duck and cover</span> Suggested method of personal protection against the effects of a nuclear explosion

"Duck and cover" is a method of personal protection against the effects of a nuclear explosion. Ducking and covering is useful in offering a degree of protection to personnel located outside the radius of the nuclear fireball but still within sufficient range of the nuclear explosion that standing upright and uncovered is likely to cause serious injury or death. In the most literal interpretation, the focus of the maneuver is primarily on protective actions one can take during the first few crucial seconds-to-minutes after the event, while the film of the same name and a full encompassing of the advice also cater to providing protection up to weeks after the event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ivy Mike</span> 1952 American nuclear test

Ivy Mike was the codename given to the first full-scale test of a thermonuclear device, in which part of the explosive yield comes from nuclear fusion. Ivy Mike was detonated on November 1, 1952, by the United States on the island of Elugelab in Enewetak Atoll, in the now independent island nation of the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Ivy. It was the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design, a staged fusion device.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rongerik Atoll</span> Coral atoll in the Pacific Ocean

Rongerik Atoll or Rongdrik Atoll is an unpopulated coral atoll of 17 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and is located in the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands, approximately 200 kilometers (120 mi) east of Bikini Atoll. Its total land area is only 1.68 square kilometers (0.65 sq mi), but it encloses a lagoon of 144 square kilometers (56 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Hardtack I</span> Series of 1950s US nuclear tests

Operation Hardtack I was a series of 35 nuclear tests conducted by the United States from April 28 to August 18 in 1958 at the Pacific Proving Grounds. At the time of testing, the Operation Hardtack I test series included more nuclear detonations than the total of prior nuclear explosions in the Pacific Ocean. These tests followed the Project 58/58A series, which occurred from 1957 December 6 to 1958, March 14, and preceded the Operation Argus series, which took place in 1958 from August 27 to September 6.

<i>Daigo Fukuryū Maru</i> Japanese fishing boat

Daigo Fukuryū Maru was a Japanese tuna fishing boat with a crew of 23 men which was contaminated by nuclear fallout from the United States Castle Bravo thermonuclear weapon test at Bikini Atoll on March 1, 1954.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ailinginae Atoll</span> Atoll in the Marshall Islands

Ailinginae Atoll is an uninhabited coral atoll of 25 islands in the Pacific Ocean, on the northern end of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 2.8 square kilometers (1.1 sq mi), but it encloses a lagoon of 105.96 square kilometers (40.91 sq mi). It is located approximately 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) west of Rongelap Atoll. The landscape is low-lying with only the top 3 meters (9.8 ft) above sea level. The two entrances into the lagoon are 'Mogiri Pass' and 'Eniibukku Pass'. These are 1.45 and 0.48 kilometers wide respectively.

Downwinders were individuals and communities in the intermountain between the Cascade and Rocky Mountain ranges primarily in Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah but also in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho who were exposed to radioactive contamination or nuclear fallout from atmospheric or underground nuclear weapons testing, and nuclear accidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacific Proving Grounds</span> Name of several sites in the Marshall Islands used for American nuclear testing from 1946-62

The Pacific Proving Grounds was the name given by the United States government to a number of sites in the Marshall Islands and a few other sites in the Pacific Ocean at which it conducted nuclear testing between 1946 and 1962. The U.S. tested a nuclear weapon on Bikini Atoll on June 30, 1946. This was followed by Baker on July 24, 1946.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Project 4.1</span> Radioactive fallout exposure study and experiment

Project 4.1 was the designation for a medical study and experimentation conducted by the United States of those residents of the Marshall Islands exposed to radioactive fallout from the March 1, 1954 Castle Bravo nuclear test at Bikini Atoll, which had an unexpectedly large yield. Government and mainstream historical sources point to the study being organized on March 6 or March 7, 1954, six days after the Bravo shot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomic veteran</span> A soldier exposed to radiation at a site of a nuclear explosion

An atomic veteran is a veteran who was exposed to ionizing radiation while present in the site of a nuclear explosion during active duty. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs defines an atomic veteran "who, as part of his or her military service: Participated in an above-ground nuclear test, 1945–1962; or was part of the U.S. military occupation forces in/around Hiroshima/Nagasaki before 1946; or was held as a POW in or near Hiroshima or Nagasaki ."

<i>Radio Bikini</i> 1988 film

Radio Bikini is a 1988 American documentary film directed by Robert Stone. It was nominated for an Academy Award in 1988 for Best Documentary Feature. It was later aired on the PBS series The American Experience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jeton Anjain</span>

Jeton Anjain was a Minister of Health and a senator of the Marshall Islands Parliament. He received the Goldman Environmental Prize in 1992, for his efforts to help people from the Rongelap Atoll, which was subject to nuclear contamination after the test of the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb in 1954. In 1991, he and the Rongelap People were awarded the Right Livelihood Award for "their steadfast struggle against United States nuclear policy in support of their right to live on an unpolluted Rongelap island."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naval Base Marshall Islands</span> Major World War II Naval Bases in Marshall Islands

Naval Base Marshall Islands were United States Navy advance bases built on the Marshall Islands during World War II to support the Pacific War efforts. The bases were built by US Navy after the Marshall Islands campaign that captured the islands from the Empire of Japan. By February 1944 the United States Armed Forces had captured the islands. Most of the airfields and other facilities Japan had built were destroyed in allied bombing raids and naval bombardment. US Navy Seabee Construction Battalions arrived as soon as the area was secured and remove the debris. The Seabees quickly repaired, built and improved the airfield/runways and seaport. Seabees often worked around the clock to get airfields operational so that fighter aircraft and bombers could start operating. The bases were used for staging upcoming campaigns and for repair.

References

  1. 1 2 DeGroot 2004, pp. 196-198
  2. 1 2 Zoe T. Richards; Maria Beger; Silvia Pinca & Carden C. Wallace (2008). "Bikini Atoll coral biodiversity resilience five decades after nuclear testing" (PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 56 (3): 503–515. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.11.018. PMID   18187160. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Niedenthal, Jack. "A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll". Archived from the original on June 25, 2007. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
  4. ↑ Weisgall, Jonathan (1994). Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll . Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. ix. ISBN   978-1-55750-919-2.
  5. 1 2 3 "Operation Castle". May 17, 2006. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013. Retrieved October 8, 2013.
  6. ↑ Rowberry, Ariana (November 30, 2001). "Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion". Archived from the original on December 20, 2016.
  7. 1 2 "Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal". Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved July 22, 2007.
  8. 1 2 Bordner, Autumn S.; Crosswell, Danielle A.; Katz, Ainsley O.; Shah, Jill T.; Zhang, Catherine R.; Nikolic-Hughes, Ivana; Hughes, Emlyn W.; Ruderman, Malvin A. (2016). "Measurement of background gamma radiation in the northern Marshall Islands". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 (25): 6833–6838. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.6833B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1605535113 . PMC   4922173 . PMID   27274073.
  9. 1 2 Sumner, Thomas (June 6, 2016). "Bikini Atoll radiation levels remain alarmingly high". Science News . Archived from the original on March 7, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Roy, Eleanor Ainge (July 15, 2017). "'Quite odd': coral and fish thrive on Bikini Atoll 70 years after nuclear tests". The Guardian . Archived from the original on July 15, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  11. 1 2 3 Operation Crossroads - The Official Pictorial Record. New York: W. H. Wise and Co. Inc. 1946. p.  21. Archived from the original on May 5, 2017. Retrieved April 7, 2017.
  12. ↑ https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/03/lee-cataluna-an-unusual-protest-an-ongoing-battle/
  13. ↑ "Operation Crossroads: Bikini Atoll". Navy Historical Center. Department of the Navy. Archived from the original on May 21, 2000. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
  14. 1 2 3 "Operation Crossroads: Fact Sheet". Department of the Navy—Naval History and Heritage Command. Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Guyer, Ruth Levy (September 2001). "Radioactivity and Rights". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (9, issue 9): 1371–1376. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91.9.1371. PMC   1446783 . PMID   11527760.
  16. ↑ "Bikini". Newsweek. July 1, 1946. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
  17. ↑ "Nuclear explosions at Bikini Atoll in 1946". Archived from the original on July 21, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
  18. ↑ "Article on Operation Crossroads mentioning Cross Spikes Club" (PDF). Newsletter of American Atomic Veterans. 25 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2009. Retrieved June 15, 2014.
  19. ↑ "Operation Crossroads: Bikini Atoll". Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on January 21, 2013. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
  20. 1 2 Gwynne, S.C. (October 5, 2012). "Paradise With an Asterisk". Outside Magazine. Archived from the original on August 16, 2013. Retrieved August 9, 2013.
  21. ↑ "Bikini Atoll Reference Facts". Archived from the original on August 9, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2013.
  22. ↑ John C. Clark as told to Robert Cahn (July 1957). "Trapped by Radioactive Fallout, Saturday Evening Post" (PDF). accessed Feb 20, 2013
  23. ↑ "Les cobayes du Dr Folamour". Le Monde.fr (in French). June 22, 2009. Archived from the original on April 28, 2014. Retrieved June 15, 2014.
  24. ↑ "Nuclear Issues". Archived from the original on April 24, 2016. Retrieved March 26, 2006.
  25. 1 2 "The Ghost Fleet of Bikini Atoll". Military History. August 9, 2010. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on March 12, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2012.
  26. 1 2 "The evacuation of Rongelap". Archived from the original on September 16, 2012. Retrieved September 21, 2012.
  27. 1 2 Gidley, Isobelle; Shears, Richard (1986). The Rainbow Warrior Affair. Unwin. p. 155.
  28. ↑ "Bikini Atoll". U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved August 8, 2013.
  29. ↑ Gerald H. Clarfield and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940–1980, Harper & Row, New York, p. 207.
  30. ↑ "Establishment of Program 4 and Project 4.1 in Castle" (PDF). James Reeves to Frank D. Peel. March 11, 1954. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 27, 2006.
  31. ↑ Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith. (2006). Britain, Australia and the Bomb, Palgrave Press, p. 77.
  32. ↑ Rhodes, Richard (1995). Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN   0-684-80400-X. pg 542
  33. ↑ "As I See It: Gov't must delve deeper into radiation exposure from Bikini Atoll incident". Archived from the original on May 24, 2014.
  34. ↑ Hoffman, Michael (August 8, 2011). "Forgotten atrocity of the atomic age". Japan Times. Archived from the original on January 13, 2014. Retrieved August 8, 2013.
  35. ↑ Hansen, Chuck (1995). Volume VII: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. p. 154, Table A-1. ISBN   978-0-9791915-1-0. OCLC   231585284.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Kattenburg, David (December 2012). "Stranded on Bikini". Green Planet Monitor. Archived from the original on August 30, 2012. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
  37. ↑ "Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands". University of Hawaii. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016.
  38. ↑ Chris Hamilton (March 4, 2012). "Survivors of nuke testing seek justice: Marshall Islanders on Maui rally to share nation's story". Maui News. Archived from the original on May 23, 2012.
  39. ↑ "Victims of the Nuclear Age". Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. Retrieved July 22, 2007.
  40. 1 2 3 Maier, Thomas (August 21, 2009). "Brookhaven team minimized risks in return to Bikini". Newsday. Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
  41. ↑ "IAEA Bikini Advisory Group Report". June 8, 2016. Archived from the original on November 30, 2016.
  42. ↑ Elliott, Steve (May 22, 1988). "Researchers explore ways to rid islands of lingering radiation". Lawrence Journal-World. Vol. 130, no. 143. The Associated Press. p. 7A. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  43. ↑ Robison, WL; Noshkin VE; Conrado CL; Eagle RJ; Brunk JL; Jokela TA; Mount ME; Phillips WA; Stoker AC; Stuart ML; Wong KM (1997). "The Northern Marshall Islands Radiological Survey: Data and Dose Assessments". Health Physics. 73 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00004. PMID   9199217.
  44. ↑ Assessing Radiological Conditions At Bikini Atoll and The Prospects For Resettlement – Review At Bikini Atoll, Peter Stegnar, Iaea Bulletin, 40/4/1998, p. 3: »It was recommended that Bikini Island should not be permanently resettled under the present radiological conditions. This recommendation was based on the assumption that persons resettling on the island would consume a diet of entirely locally produced food. There are a number of remedial actions that could be performed that could lead to permanent rehabitation of the island. ... It is generally felt that the most reasonable approach would be to use potassium fertilizer.«
  45. ↑ Richards, Z. T; Beger, M; Pinca, S; Wallace, C. C (March 2008). "Bikini Atoll coral biodiversity resilience five decades after nuclear testing". Mar Pollut Bull. 56 (3): 503–15. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.11.018. PMID   18187160.
  46. ↑ "Bikini Corals Recover From Atomic Blast". physorg.com. Archived from the original on September 11, 2012.
  47. ↑ "Despite High Court Denial, Battle Over Bikini Atoll Bombing Endures". Bikini Island Local Government. April 26, 2010. Archived from the original on October 24, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
  48. 1 2 3 "U.S. Reparations for Damages". Bikini Atoll. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved August 12, 2013.
  49. ↑ "U.S. Relations With Marshall Island". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on January 22, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
  50. ↑ Keating, Fiona (July 15, 2017). "'Remarkable': Scientists amazed by thriving marine life at Bikini Atoll site where 23 atomic bombs were dropped". The Independent . Archived from the original on July 15, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  51. 1 2 3 Rice, Doyle (July 6, 2017). "Can coral get cancer? Research examines Bikini Atoll, where U.S. dropped 23 atomic bombs". USA Today. Archived from the original on July 10, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  52. 1 2 Xuequan, Mu (July 2, 2017). "Stanford researchers exploring how corals of Bikini Atoll survive nuke tests". Xinhuanet. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  53. 1 2 3 Jordan, Rob (June 28, 2017). "Corals May Hold Cancer Insights". Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. Archived from the original on September 12, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  54. ↑ "Big Pacific". PBS. 2017. Archived from the original on July 4, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  55. 1 2 Lippert, ZaZu (July 14, 2017). "Bikini Atoll corals may give insight into cancer treatment". The Stanford Daily. Archived from the original on July 14, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  56. ↑ Mycio, Mary (January 2013). "Do Animals in Chernobyl's Fallout Zone Glow?". Slate . Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  57. ↑ Johnson, Giff (March 1, 2014). "Islanders afraid to go home 60 years after Bikini Atoll H-bomb". phys.org. Archived from the original on September 27, 2015. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  58. 1 2 Jorgensen, Timothy J. (2017). Strange Glow: The Story of Radiation. Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691178349.
  59. 1 2 "Fallout Radiation And Growth". The British Medical Journal. 1 (5496): 1132. January 1, 1966. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5496.1132-a. JSTOR   25407693. PMC   1844058 . PMID   20790967.
  60. ↑ "Radioactive Fallout in the Marshall Islands". Science. 122 (3181): 1178–1179. January 1, 1955. Bibcode:1955Sci...122.1178.. doi:10.1126/science.122.3181.1178. JSTOR   1749478. PMID   17807268.
  61. 1 2 3 Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (January 1, 2006). "Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks: Exposures 50 years ago still have health implications today that will continue into the future" . American Scientist. 94 (1): 48–57. doi:10.1511/2006.57.48. JSTOR   27858707.
  62. ↑ Grossman, Charles M.; Morton, William E.; Nussbaum, Rudi H.; Goldberg, Mark S.; Mayo, Nancy E.; Levy, Adrian R.; Scott, Susan C. (January 1, 1999). "Reproductive Outcomes after Radiation Exposure". Epidemiology. 10 (2): 202–203. doi: 10.1097/00001648-199903000-00024 . JSTOR   3703102. PMID   10069262.
  63. 1 2 3 Lauerman, John F.; Reuther, Christopher (January 1, 1997). "Trouble in Paradise". Environmental Health Perspectives. 105 (9): 914–919. doi:10.2307/3433870. JSTOR   3433870. PMC   1470349 . PMID   9341101.
Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as:

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.