 | This article needs additional citations for verification .(March 2008) |
Plan Rubber was the codename given to military plans of the United States for the occupation of the Northern coast of Brazil during World War II. The plan was raised in response to concerns that Brazil would enter the war on the side of the Axis, or would at least act in a manner sympathetic to the Axis cause. [1] [2]
A glance at a map of the world shows Brazil's strategic location as far as a crossing of the Atlantic is concerned. The northeastern tip of Brazil allows the shortest crossing point to French West Africa and Sierra Leone. In 1939, the United States drafted War Plan Rainbow[ clarification needed ], and one of its tenets was that northeastern Brazil would be secured and available as a staging point for trans-Atlantic travel to Africa and onwards into Europe and the Middle East, and yet further into the Far East and China (at this point, the United States was deeply concerned with Japanese involvement in China and a second route to that theatre independent of the Pacific was essential).
As the US entered the war, it was believed in Washington that the security of northeastern Brazil could not be guaranteed, and that the area and possibly the entire country could side with the Nazis. The reasoning behind this was complex, but there were two essential elements: first, Brazil was not a democracy, but was instead a dictatorship ruled by Getúlio Vargas. Having staged a revolution in the early 1930s, in 1937 Vargas had proclaimed the Estado Novo, a dictatorship with some characteristics similar to fascist ones. This invited obvious parallels with Italy and Spain, and to an extent Nazi Germany. Vargas was also proud of his country's independence, and this spawned the second factor. In late 1941, the US requested the use of Brazilian bases for air operations, and to send troops to guard these Brazilian bases against sabotage. Vargas saw this as an affront to his nation's sovereignty and refused. In Washington, this may have been interpreted as a resistance to the US rather than national pride. Hence doubt as to Vargas's (and hence Brazil's) allegiance was founded.
There may also have been some truth to the fear that Brazil, or at least its military, would side with the Nazis. The bulk of Brazil's military were based in the southern part of the country, with the northern part being relatively insecure and thinly defended. Whilst the navy and air force were generally regarded as pro-Allied (unsurprising, considering the close ties that each had formed with the British Royal Navy and the United States Army Air Force respectively), there was a considerable degree of support for the strong military example of Nazi Germany amongst the officer corps of the Brazilian army, based mainly in the South. A report by the Office of Strategic Services estimated that some 70 per cent of the officer corps were pro-Nazi, and senior government ministers were also believed to be of the same persuasion. Another factor was the large German expatriate population of some 1.5 million, most of whom resided in the southern part of Brazil.
The fall of France and the spectre of a German seizure of Vichy French territories in West Africa completed the picture. US planners believed that the German failure to capture Moscow in 1941 could lead to expeditions on the opposite flank, with a drive through Spain and Portugal, coupled with the seizure of Vichy French territory in Africa, bringing Brazil within range of German aircraft. A credible scenario involving German troops (or at least "5th columnists" landed by air from Dakar), combined with the mobilization of pro-Nazi elements of the Brazilian armed forces was postulated. Thus, in the days after Pearl Harbor, the US drew up plans to forestall any attempt to secure northeast Brazil for the Axis by seizing it themselves, and the "Rubber Plan" was born.
The full title of the plan was the "Joint Basic Plan for the Occupation of Northern Brazil [Joint], Serial 737 of 21 December 1941". The initial part of the plan, covering the amphibious operation that would seize several key ports and airports, had a shorter title, "Plan Rubber". The aim of Plan Rubber was to land U. S. Marines in Brazil and on an outlying island to secure the vital airfields. The primary target was the airport at Natal, the primary airfield in the transatlantic link. Other mainland targets were Salvador in the south and Belém in the north, and also Fernando de Noronha Island. All three of the mainland sites had airfields or airports capable of taking B17 bombers and large transport aircraft. Fernando de Noronha Island had a smaller airfield, but this had been built and was operated by the Italian airline Ala Littoria. Its strategic location flanking the sea routes to Recife and Salvador and the possibility of Axis aircraft using it as a staging post made the airfield a vital target. Two other targets were deemed a priority, namely the airfields at Fortaleza and Recife, although they were not to be assaulted from the sea.
Unfortunately, geography was against the planners from the start. With the exception of Salvador (which featured wide sandy beaches), the littorals around Natal, Belém and Fernando de Noronha were almost totally unsuited to amphibious operations. At Natal, the beaches were sandy and shallow (ideal in themselves for landing craft), but were screened by a treacherous reef that was gaped only in six places. Landing craft would have to be launched nearly 9 miles offshore because of the reef. Finding the six gaps was likely to be difficult enough. At Belém the situation was worse; the best beaches were several miles from the city and were separated from it by miles of impassable swamp. Apart from the docks at Belém itself, the only suitable landing points were some suitable beaches closer to the city, but these could only be reached by landing craft, and this only after an 8-mile journey upriver, and were overlooked from the heights surrounding the city. If these heights were defended in any strength, the landings would be extremely hazardous. Finally, Fernando de Noronha Island had only a single beach that could be used, it was only 200 yards wide and was swept by a particularly severe swell. Even an unopposed landing would have been treacherous; if well-defended, the beach could become a bloody killing ground. Geography was also the reason why Fortaleza and Recife could not be taken from the sea; Fortaleza was surrounded by impassable terrain, whilst Recife was completely defended by reefs (the name Recife is derived from the Portuguese word for reef). Both would have to be secured by land offensives mounted from Natal after the initial landings.
Despite the significant problems that the geography presented, planning went ahead. The United States Atlantic Fleet would provide cover to the assault force, as well as shore bombardment from the battleship USS Texas and air support from the carrier USS Ranger (which could have embarked Marine Corps aviation squadrons tasked with ground attack in addition to her naval aircraft). The 5th Marine Division and the 9th US Army Division were allocated to the plan and began training for the expected amphibious assaults. In January 1942, troops from the 1st US Infantry Division and the 1st Marine Division staged an exercise at Cape Henry, Virginia, in conditions that were more benign to those that could be expected at Recife. The result was a disaster, with navigation from ship to shore a particular problem; troops became scattered all along the beaches, organization broke down and control was lost. In the eyes of the umpiring staff, the assault was a total failure, despite a 4:1 advantage over the nominal defending force. What was worse, from the perspective of Plan Rubber, was that the boat crews involved in this debacle were the same ones earmarked for the landings in Brazil. However, the exercises did show up some significant weaknesses in the ability to land troops from ships and it is possible that some of these, having been identified, could have been overcome by the time Plan Rubber was executed.
With the forces of nature set against them, it was just as well that the American planners believed the Brazilian military to be sufficiently weak to allow the plan to succeed. At sea, Brazil could muster two British-built battleships, two light cruisers, nine destroyers, three submarines and other small craft. The Brazilian Air Force had nearly 330 aircraft, but many of these were obsolete fighters and bombers. The number of aircraft that were reported as being in service at the time of Plan Rubber were as follows:
Like the Army, the Brazilian Air Force was concentrated mainly in the south, but could be quickly mobilized and sent northward.
In the regions to be seized, the Brazilians could muster about 3500 troops at Natal, 2900 at Fortaleza, 5500 at Recife, 3500 at Salvador and 1300 at Belém. Fernando de Noronha was a penal colony with only 65 guards, 600 inmates and 900 other inhabitants, but its airfield meant it could be reinforced rapidly by air. There were also a number of shore defense installations, but the status of these was largely unknown to US planners, and indeed it is very difficult to get reliable information on them even today. It is known that the Brazilians had drawn up plans for defenses by mounting 12" and 6" guns, supported by mobile batteries with 75 mm guns and machine guns. Whether these were in place at the time Plan Rubber was due to start is a matter of some debate. However, the Brazilians were as aware as anyone of the limitations on littoral operations imposed by their geography and as such it is likely that, had word of Plan Rubber been leaked, that at least some form of defense would have awaited the attacking Americans.
No landings by the United States took place in Brazil in 1942. There was a furious level of activity on the diplomatic front that was eventually to persuade President Vargas to allow US troops into Recife, and thus rendered Plan Rubber unnecessary. In December 1941, Under-Secretary Welles persuaded Vargas to allow 150 United States Marines into the airfields at Recife, Natal and Belém, disguised as aircraft mechanics. They were ordered to guarantee the safety and security of the airfields and transiting US aircraft, but were reminded that they were there under the invitation of the Brazilian authorities. This success sparked a fear that pro-Nazi elements in Brazil might stir up a backlash, but President Roosevelt resisted the urgings of some elements of his military staff to immediately execute Plan Rubber, and instead sought a diplomatic solution. Roosevelt was quick to realise that Vargas needed to maintain the respect of his population, so Roosevelt's moves were slowly and carefully arranged to allow this to happen.
At the very time when the US staff was planning to land troops in Brazil, Roosevelt ordered the export of guns and ammunition to Brazil, which raised the level of support for the Allies amongst the Brazilian government and military. This opened the way for a meeting of Foreign Ministers of the South American nations in January 1942, at which the US urged its neighbors to sever diplomatic relations with Germany. Increasing support for the Allied cause led to Brazil doing just that at the end of the meeting. The culmination of this careful policy was the signing in May 1942 of the Brazilian-American Defense Agreement, which allowed for full American support of the defense of Brazil, and finally (after the sinking of five Brazilian vessels by German submarines) Brazil's entry into the war on the Allied side on 22 August 1942.
Fernando de Noronha, officially the State District of Fernando de Noronha and formerly known as the Territory of Fernando de Noronha until 1988, is an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, part of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil, and located 354 km off the Brazilian coast. It consists of 21 islands and islets, extending over an area of 26 km2 (10 sq mi). Only the eponymous main island is inhabited; it has an area of 18.4 km2 (7.1 sq mi) and a population estimated at 3,101 in 2020. While most of the archipelago is relatively low-lying, there are parts reaching more than 100 m (328 ft) in elevation.
Operation Jubilee or the Dieppe Raid was an Allied amphibious attack on the German-occupied port of Dieppe in northern France, during the Second World War. Over 6,050 infantry, predominantly Canadian, supported by a regiment of tanks, were put ashore from a naval force operating under protection of Royal Air Force (RAF) fighters.
TAF Linhas Aéreas was an airline based in Fortaleza, Brazil. It operated regional passenger and cargo services. Today, the owner continues to do Services with a TAF Taxi Aéreo or Taf Air Taxi, using some Cessna 208 Caravan to sporadic flights in interior of Northeast of Brazil.
Varig Logística S.A., operating as VarigLog, was a cargo airline, based in Jardim Aeroporto, Campo Belo, São Paulo, Brazil.
BRA Transportes Aéreos S/A was a Brazilian low-fare airline based in São Paulo, Brazil, which used to operate both domestic and international scheduled services, as well as charter flights. Its main base was São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport. BRA was the third largest airline in Brazil with 4.19% of the domestic Brazilian market as of August 2006.
Varig Flight 254 was a Boeing 737-241, c/n 21006/398, registration PP-VMK, on a scheduled passenger flight from São Paulo, Brazil, to Belém, capital city of the state of Pará in the country's North Region, on 3 September 1989. The flight had several intermediate stopovers, the last being in Marabá, Pará. Prior to takeoff from Marabá, the crew entered an incorrect heading into the flight computer, flying deep into a remote area of the Amazon jungle. Attempts to reach an alternative airport were unsuccessful and the plane eventually ran out of fuel, crashing during a belly landing in the jungle 1,700 kilometres northwest of Rio de Janeiro. Of the 54 passengers and crew, 12 passengers died and many more sustained serious injuries. The survivors were rescued two days later.
The Battle of Cape Gloucester was fought in the Pacific theater of World War II between Japanese and Allied forces on the island of New Britain, Territory of New Guinea, between 26 December 1943 and 16 January 1944. Codenamed Operation Backhander, the US landing formed part of the wider Operation Cartwheel, the main Allied strategy in the South West Pacific Area and Pacific Ocean Areas during 1943–1944. It was the second landing the US 1st Marine Division had conducted during the war thus far, after Guadalcanal. The objective of the operation was to capture the two Japanese airfields near Cape Gloucester that were defended by elements of the Japanese 17th Division.
The Battle of Hollandia was an engagement between Allies of World War II and Japanese forces during World War II. The majority of the Allied force was provided by the United States, with the bulk of two United States Army infantry divisions being committed on the ground. Air and naval support consisted largely of U.S. assets, although Australia also provided air support during preliminary operations and a naval bombardment force.
The 91st Cyberspace Operations Squadron is an active United States Air Force unit, currently assigned to the 67th Cyberspace Wing at Kelly Annex, part of Lackland Air Force Base, Texas.
The 9th Bomb Squadron is a squadron of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the 7th Operations Group, Global Strike Command, stationed at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas. The squadron is equipped with the Rockwell B-1B Lancer bomber.
Serviços Aéreos Cruzeiro do Sul was the second oldest airline of Brazil, tracing its origins to 1927, when it was founded as Syndicato Condor, a subsidiary of Deutsche Luft Hansa. Syndicato Condor retained rights and interests of a former German trade company, Condor Syndikat, which previously operated passenger and mail services in Brazil. It was renamed Serviços Aéreos Cruzeiro do Sul in 1943. In 1975, Varig, a Brazilian airline which shared very similar origins, acquired its controlling shares. In 1993, it was finally merged into Varig.
The Battle of Wakde(Operation Straight Line) was part of the New Guinea campaign of World War II. It was fought between the United States and Japan from 17 May 1944 to 21 May 1944 in Dutch New Guinea. The operation involved an assault on the Japanese-held Wakde island group by a reinforced US infantry battalion, which was transported from a beachhead the Allied troops had established around Arara, on the mainland, the previous day. Following the capture of the island, fighting on the mainland continued until September as Allied troops advanced west towards Sarmi. In the aftermath, the island's airbase was expanded and used to support operations around Biak and in the Marianas.
Gov. Carlos Wilson Airport is the airport serving the island of Fernando de Noronha, Brazil. It is the easternmost airport of Brazil and the only facility located in the Brazilian oceanic islands.
Brazil was on the Allied side in World War II, (1939–1945) despite the fascist sympathies of its ruling Estado Novo regime. German and Italian submarines torpedoed Brazilian ships in February 1942 in retaliation to Brazil's adherence to the Atlantic Charter, which called for automatic support for any nation on the American continent which was attacked by an extra-continental power. Over several months 36 Brazilian merchant ships were sunk causing a total of 1,691 shipwrecks and 1,074 deaths.
The Brazilian communist uprising of 1935 was a military revolt in Brazil led by Luís Carlos Prestes and leftist low-rank military against Getúlio Vargas's government on behalf of the National Liberation Alliance. It took place in the cities of Natal, Recife, and the capital Rio de Janeiro between 23 and 27 November 1935. The uprising was supported by the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB), then called the Communist Party of Brazil, and the Communist International.
VPB-94 was a Patrol Bombing Squadron of the U.S. Navy. The squadron was established as Patrol Squadron 94 (VP-94) on 3 March 1942, redesignated as Patrol Bombing Squadron 94 (VPB-94) on 1 October 1944 and disestablished on 22 December 1944. It operated the PBY-5A Catalina throughout its operational history.
VPB-134 was a Patrol Bombing Squadron of the U.S. Navy. The squadron was established as Bombing Squadron 134 (VB-134) on 29 March 1943, redesignated Patrol Bombing Squadron 134 (VPB-134) on 1 October 1944 and disestablished on 25 April 1945.
VPB-145 was a Patrol Bombing Squadron of the U.S. Navy. The squadron was established as Bombing Squadron 145 (VB-145) on 15 July 1943, redesignated Patrol Bombing Squadron 145 (VPB-145) on 1 October 1944 and disestablished on 18 June 1945.
The South Atlantic Wing, Air Transport Command is a former United States Army Air Forces unit. It was organized in 1942 to ferry aircraft and transport personnel and equipment from the Caribbean to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, European Theater of Operations, China-Burma-India Theater and for delivery of lend lease aircraft to the Soviet Union. It also transported critical material from South America. The wing commander also served as the United States Army theater commander for South America. After V-E Day, the wing became responsible for the return of aircraft and personnel to the United States. It was inactivated in 1946 as operations in the South Atlantic decreased.
Naval Base Trinidad, also called NAS Trinidad, NAS Port-of-Spain, was a large United States Navy Naval base built during World War II to support the many naval ships fighting and patrolling the Battle of the Atlantic. The fighting in the area became known as the Battle of the Caribbean. Naval Base Trinidad was located on the Island of Trinidad in West Indies of the Caribbean Sea.