Shenyi

Last updated • 28 min readFrom Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Structure of a shenyi, consisting of a yi and chang sewn together to form a one-piece robe Shenyi 2.jpg
Structure of a shenyi, consisting of a yi and chang sewn together to form a one-piece robe

The structure of the Hanfu system is typically composed of upper and lower parts; it also typically comes into two styles: one-piece garment (where the upper and lower parts are connected together), and two-pieces garments (where the upper and lower parts are not connected). [3] [10]

And as stated by the Liji , the shenyi was one long robe as opposed to the combination of a top and a bottom. [11] However, the structure of the shenyi is made of two pieces: an upper garment called yi (Chinese : 衣 ; pinyin :yī) and lower garment called chang (Chinese : 裳 ; pinyin :cháng), which are then connected together to form a one-piece robe. [3] [1] : 12  Thus, the shenyi differ structurally from the paofu, which is a one-piece robe where the lower and upper part is cut in a single fabric. Moreover, a standard shenyi was also made up of twelve panel of fabric which were sewn together. [12]

History of early development

The shenyi, along with its components, [5] already existed prior to the Zhou dynasty [6] [7] having first appeared at least since the Shang dynasty. [3] However, in the Shang and Western Zhou dynasties, people prominently wore a set of attire called yichang , which consisted of a jacket called yi and a long skirt called chang . [12] [13] Out of convenience, the yi and chang were sewn together to form a robe; [14] this combination then resulted into the shenyi which was developed in the Zhou dynasty. [15] [5] The shenyi eventually became the dominant form of Hanfu robe from the Zhou dynasty to the Han dynasty remaining popular; [14] [16] : 260  From the Spring and Autumn period to the Han dynasty, the loose shenyi with wide sleeves was fashionable amongst the members of the royal families, the aristocrats, and the elites. [17] The loose shenyi which wrapped around the body to back and lacked a front end slit and was designed for the upper classes of society, especially for women, who wanted to avoid exposing their body parts when walking. [17] This design of this wrap-style of shenyi was an important necessity in a period where the kun had yet to become popular amongst the general population. [18] : 16  The preoccupation of the elites with layered, loose-fitting clothing also displayed their desire to distance themselves from the labourers, signalling their high status. [17] By the Han dynasty, the shenyi had evolved in forms; [1] : 12  it then further developed in the Han dynasty where small variations in styles and shapes appeared. [12] [14] Following the Han dynasty, the shenyi lost popularity in the succeeding dynasties until it was revived again the Song dynasty. [10] [19]

Zhou dynasty period

The Western Zhou dynasty had strict rules and regulations which regulated the daily attire of its citizen based on their social status; these regulations also governed the material, shape, sizes, colours, and decorative patterns of their garments. [16] : 255  The shenyi was also shaped by the Zhou dynasty's hierarchical system based on social class, gender, age, and the situation. [3] However, despite these complex regulations, the shenyi was still a basic form of garment which served the needs for all classes, from nobles to commoners, old to young, men to women; and people would therefore expressed their identities through recognizable objects, decorations, colours, and materials on their outer garments. [3] Nobles would wear a decorated coat over the shenyi, while commoners would wear it alone. [3]

Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period

In the early Eastern Zhou dynasty period, there were still strict rules and regulations which regulated the clothing of all social classes and were used to maintain social distinction between people of different classes. [11]

Changshadragon.jpg
Man wearing a shenyi, from the Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon.
Warring States Silk Painting Replica, Chu State (10162703463).jpg
Woman wearing a shenyi (side view), from the Silk painting with female figure, dragon and phoenix patterns

In the Warring States period, the shenyi was a moderately formal style of clothing. [1] : 13  The shenyi which was representative of the Warring States period, was designed to have the front stretched and wrapped around the body several times. [17] The wrapping-style shenyi for men and women can be seen in the Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon and the Silk painting with female figure, dragon and phoenix patterns respectively [18] : 16–17  Both paintings unearthed from a Chu tomb, Warring States period, 5th century BC, Changsha, Hunan Province. [20] [21]

An attendant wearing a representative shenyi (front view) of its period, Warring States period (475-221 BC), Shanghai Museum Shanghai Museum 2006 17-14.jpg
An attendant wearing a representative shenyi (front view) of its period, Warring States period (475–221 BC), Shanghai Museum

Materials which were used in this period tended to be linen; however, when the shenyi was made into ceremonial garments, then black silk would be used instead. [1] : 13  It was worn by both the literati and the warriors as it was both functional and simplistic in style. [1] : 13  The shenyi was also tied right below the waist level in the front with a silk ribbon, called dadai (Chinese : 大带 ) or shendai (Chinese : 绅带 ), on which a decorative piece was attached to. [1] : 13  [22]

Rules and regulations in the Liji

The design features of shenyi also match the ancient Chinese culture. [23] In this period, the shenyi was also deeply rooted in the traditional Chinese ethics and morals which forbid close contacts between males and females. [1] : 12  In this period, the shenyi had to conform to the certain rules and regulations which were recorded in the special chapter called Shenyi《深衣》in the Liji . [1] : 12  [22] According to the Liji, the ancient shenyi had to fulfill the following: [22]

[Ancient shenyi] had definite measurements, so as to satisfy the requirements of the compass and square, the line, the balance, and the steelyard. It was not made so short as to show any of the skin, nor so long as to touch the ground. The outside pieces of the skirt joined, and were hooked together at the side; (the width of) the seam at the waist was half that at the bottom (of the skirt). The sleeve was joined to the body of the dress at the armpit, so as to allow the freest movement of the elbow-joint; the length of the lower part admitted of the cuffs being turned back to the elbow. The sash was put on where there were no bones, so as not to interfere with the action of the thighs below or of the ribs above. [《古者深衣，蓋有制度，以應規、矩、繩、權、衡。短毋見膚，長毋被土。續衽，鉤邊。要縫半下；袼之高下，可以運肘；袂之長短，反詘之及肘。帶下毋厭髀，上毋厭脅，當無骨者。》]

— Translated by James Legge, Liji: Shenyi《深衣》

The same chapter described the shenyi as being made of twelve panels of fabric corresponding to the twelve months and all twelve robes are cut into one clothing style. [22] Moreover, the shape of the component of the shenyi is also described: [22]

In the making (of the garment) twelve strips (of the cloth) were used, to correspond to the twelve months. The sleeve was made round, as if fashioned by a disk. The opening at the neck was square, as if made by means of that instrument so named. The cord-like (seam) at the back descended to the ankles, as if it had been a straight line. The edge at the bottom was like the steelyard of a balance, made perfectly even. [《制：十有二幅以應十有二月；袂圜以應規；曲袷如矩以應方；負繩及踝以應直；下齊如權衡以應平。》]

— Translated by James Legge, Liji: Shenyi《深衣》

These prescribed rules and regulations did not only defined the shenyi as the combination of the yi and chang together, but also prescribed the length of the shenyi in this period which had to be long enough to prevent the exposure of the skin but short enough to prevent it from trailing on the floor, [1] : 12–13  and the explanation behind the function of these prescribed measurements, and the location of the belt referred as dai (simplified Chinese : 带 ; traditional Chinese :帶). [22] It also prescribed the rules on the colours and decorations of the trims based on the circumstances of its wearer: [22]

For ornament, while his parents and grandparents were alive, (a son) wore the dress with its border embroidered. If (only) his parents were alive, the ornamental border was blue. In the case of an orphan son, the border was white. The border round the mouth of the sleeves and all the edges of the dress was an inch and a half wide. [《具父母、大父母，衣純以繢；具父母，衣純以青。如孤子，衣純以素。純袂、緣、純邊，廣各寸半。》]

— Translated by James Legge, Liji: Shenyi《深衣》

Moreover, in addition to the prescribed rules and regulations present in the chapter Shenyi《深衣》, more details can be found in the chapter Yuzao《玉藻》of the Liji which described the shenyi as having a youren opening, [11] and being a one-piece long robe with broad sleeve openings; with its circumference at the waist be three times that of the sleeve-opening and that of its hem be even larger: [24]

In the morning they wore the xuanduan; in the evening, the shenyi. [The shenyi] at the waist was thrice the width of the sleeve; and at the bottom twice as wide as at the waist. It was gathered in at each side (of the body). The sleeve could be turned back to the elbow. The outer or under garment joined on to the sleeve and covered a cubit of it. The collar was 2 inches wide; the cuff, a cubit and 2 inches long; the border, 1.5 inch broad. To wear silk under or inside linen was contrary to rule. [《朝玄端，夕深衣。深衣三袪，縫齊倍要，衽當旁，袂可以回肘。長中繼掩尺。袷二寸，祛尺二寸，緣廣寸半。以帛裹布，非禮也。》]

— Translated by James Legge, Liji :《玉藻 - Yu Zao》

There are two purposes for the loose-cut design: firstly, the body shape is less visible to others; the second reason is to allow the wearer to move the body as freely as possible. The wearer's skin should be appropriately covered to meet the first purpose. The waistband should only accentuate the outline of the waist; the outline of the rest of the body should be well hidden from view. [23] Nonetheless, the second purpose, which engages more freedom of movement for the wearer's body.

Cultural significance and symbolism

In the chapter Shenyi《深衣》of the Liji , the making of the shenyi will match the compass called gui (Chinese : 規 ; lit.' pair of compass '), the square called ju (Chinese : 矩 ; lit.' try square '), the plumb line called sheng (Chinese : 繩 ; lit.' plumb bob '), and the steelyard balance called quanheng (Chinese : 權 衡 ; lit.' balance scale '). [22] [25] These four tools have normative connotations in Liji: The gui, ju, and sheng generally refer to the rules and standards people should follow; the quanheng defines the ability to balance all the advantages and disadvantages and result in the best solution. [23]

In appearance, rounded cuffs of the shenyi to match the compass; squared neckline to match the squareness, the seams at the back part of the shenyi drop down to the ankle to match the straightness, and steelyard balance the bottom edge to match evenness. The terms "squareness," "straightness," and "evenness" can be used to describe both the physical properties of objects and the moral qualities of people. These wordplays tie the physical properties of tools to virtues. Every part of shenyi has the attributes of an instrument, which gives the text multiple moral meanings. [23]

The Liji also explains how the shenyi helps construct its wearer's character through the symbolic relationship between the tools, virtues, and each part of the shenyi. The circular shape of the cuffs allows the user to raise his arms while walking, allowing him to maintain correct comportment (rong). The straight seams worn in the rear (fusheng) and the square neckline worn in the front (baofang) are intended to straighten one's approach to political issues. The bottom edge is meant to seem like a steelyard balance to calm one's thoughts and focus one's aim. [23]

The back seam of the shenyi is first linked to the physical characteristics of "straightness" in the sheng and then to the moral trait of "straightness." When attention to political matters, the wearer of the shenyi will be straight in the sense of becoming "upright" the design of the square-shaped neckline indicates "making correct" correspondence to the wearer's role performance. The evenness of the bottom edge is supposed to be able to keep the wearer's thoughts "even" in the sense of "balancing," allowing him to focus on a single goal. [23] Liji emphasizes how each part of shenyi represents a moral trait, such as selflessness, straightness, and evenness.

Nevertheless, the chapter Shenyi《深衣》also emphasizes the body effects on wearers. The body concealing and physical movement freedom are two significant reasons why shenyi was made in this design. Body mobility is brought up again in Liji, which says that the cuffs are created round to allow the wearer to cultivate his physical comportments (rong), not because roundness indicates a certain moral quality. In early Confucian ethics, having refined body comportment is regarded ethically significant. [23] The shenyi allows the user to cultivate a person's comportment while also cultivating one's character by allowing a broad range of body mobility.

The Liji also implies that the symbolic meanings of the shenyi which may be sensed by the wearer's body, in addition to being accessed cognitively and mentally. Both the Chinese verbs "to carry" (fu) and "to embrace" (bao) employed regarding the straight seams and square-shaped neckline frequently indicate a close bodily relationship between its subject and object. These two words are widely used to describe how the human body moves. The text implies that the wearer's body carries and embraces the straightness and squareness. Therefore, it can be sensed through the tactile sensations when the shenyi contacts the wearer's skin. Moreover, the evenness of the bottom border of the shenyi may be sensed when the wearer stretches it with his hands or when his thighs naturally meet it while walking. [23] The users of shenyi may need to walk smoothly and firmly to keep its bottom edge even.

The design of the shenyi also encourages its wearer to use their bodies in a certain way. The fact that the text alternates between explaining the moral characteristics that the shenyi represents and discussing how it links to the wearer's body indicates that the design of shenyi has considered both the physiological and psychological-cognitive effects it has on its wearer. [23]

Mid-warring states period

By the Mid-warring states period, however, the rules and regulations started to disintegrate. [11] This can be observed in the Mashan tombs, where a lady, who was a member of the shi class, [note 1] was buried sometimes around the year 340 – 278 BC with twelve long robes which were all cut in the approximate style of shenyi whether they were padded with silk floss (mianpao), single in layer (danyi) or lined (jiayi). [11] The forms of these shenyi, however, were not standardized and show variations in cut and construction. [11] Moreover, some of the textiles and decorations used in making those robes were against the rules and regulations for her ranks and violated the rules which were stipulated in the Liji. [11] The shenyi found in the Mashan tombs had a straight-front which falls straight down. [11]

Transition from Warring States period to the Han dynasty

The shenyi grew in popularity during the transition period from the Warring States period to the Western Han dynasty; and with its increased in popularity, the shape of the shenyi deviated further from its earlier prescriptions. [11] [note 2] During the Qin and Han dynasties, the shenyi dominated the connection method of the upper and lower parts and became the mainstream choice. [3]

Qin dynasty

In the Qin dynasty, Qin Shi Huang abolished the mianfu -system of the Zhou dynasty and implemented the shenyi-system specifying that third ranked officials and above were required to wear shenyi made out green silk while commoners had to wear shenyi which were white in colour. [26] : 16  This system adopted by Qin Shi Huang laid the foundations of the Hanfu -system in the succeeding dynasties. [26] : 16 

Han dynasty

Reconstruction of Han dynasty shenyi. Han Yang Ling 33.JPG
Reconstruction of Han dynasty shenyi.

The Western Han dynasty also implemented the shenyi-system, which featured the use of a cicada-shaped hat, red clothes, and a collar in the shape of tian 《田》, and garments which were sewn in the shenyi-style with an upper and lower garment sewed together. [27] The shenyi was also worn together with the guan and shoes as a form of formal attire in the Han dynasty while in ordinary times, shanku attire and the ruqun attire were born by men and women respectively. [26] : 16 

Unearthed zhijupao shenyi from the Mawangdui tomb, Western Han dynasty Mawangdui Han Gown (10113118165).jpg
Unearthed zhijupaoshenyi from the Mawangdui tomb, Western Han dynasty
Maid figurines wearing qujupao shenyi with one wrap, Mawangdui tomb, Western Han tomb Maid Figurines (10112699875).jpg
Maid figurines wearing qujupaoshenyi with one wrap, Mawangdui tomb, Western Han tomb

By the Western Han dynasty, the shape of the shenyi had deviated from the earlier versions as it can be found in the Mawangdui tomb of the same period belonging to Lady Dai. [11] The shenyi had evolved into two types of robe: the qujupao (Chinese :曲裾袍; lit.'curved robe'), which is also known as "curved gown" in English, and the zhijupao (Chinese :直裾袍; lit.'straight robe'). [1] : 13–14  These two robes differed from each other based on their front opening and the way their lapels overlapped: the qujupao would curve and wraps the dress to the back while the front opening of the zhijupao would fall straight down. [11] The qujupao directly evolved from the wrapping-style shenyi which was worn in the pre-Qin period and became popular in the Han dynasty. [18] : 32 

Zhijusushadanyi shenyi, from the Mawangdui tomb, Western Han dynasty Mawangdui Han Gown (10113065094).jpg
Zhijusushadanyishenyi, from the Mawangdui tomb, Western Han dynasty

The qujupao was more luxurious than the zhijupao as it required approximately 40% more materials than the zhijupao; and therefore the presence of more amount of wraps in qujupao indicates that the robes are more increasingly more luxurious. [11]

Moreover, the shenyi in this period, regardless of its cut, could also be padded, lined, or unlined. [11] More examples of unearthed archeological artefacts of shenyi made of diverse cuts and materials from the Mawangdui tomb can be found in Museums, such as the zhijusushadanyi (Chinese :直裾素纱襌衣; pinyin :zhíjūsùshādānyī; lit.'straight plain gauze unlined robe'), the qujusushadanyi (Chinese :曲裾素纱褝衣; lit.'curved plain gauze unlined robe'), [14] and simianqujupao (Chinese : 丝绵曲裾袍 ; lit.'silk cotton qujupao'), [29] found in the Hunan Museum. According to the Fangyan by Yang Xiong dating from the Western Han dynasty, the danyi (Chinese : 襌衣 ; lit.'unlined clothing'), also called die (Chinese : 褋 ), zuoyi (Chinese : 袏衣 ), and chengyi (Chinese : 裎衣 ) depending on its geographical location, was called shenyi in ancient times. [30]

There were also gradual changes but clear distinctions in the form of the shenyi between the early and late period of the Western Han dynasty. [12] In the early Western Han, some women wore body-hugging shenyi which was floor length with wide and long sleeves, long enough to cover the hand. [12] Others wore qujupao with a flowing extended panels which would create a tiered effects at the back. [12]

Zhijupao chanyu with kun, Eastern Han dynasty EasternHan-ColouredPotteryFigurine-ShanghaiMuseum-May27-08.jpg
Zhijupaochanyu with kun , Eastern Han dynasty

Moreover, the design of the shenyi was closely related to the evolution of the Chinese trousers, especially the ku . [17] A form of zhijupao, known as chan or yu (Chinese :褕; pinyin :yú) [31] or chanyu (Chinese :襜褕; pinyin :chānyú), also became popular in the Han dynasty. [1] : 14  However, when the chanyu first appeared, it was considered to be improper to use it as a ceremonial garment; it was also improper to use it outside of the house, and it was also improper to wear it at home when receiving guests. [1] : 14  The disrespectful nature of wearing chanyu at the court was even recorded in the Shiji . [1] : 14  [32] [33] Reasons why the wearing of chanyu was considered improper in those circumstances might be related to the wearing of the ancient ku, which were trousers without crotches; and thus, this form of zhijupao might not have been sufficiently long to cover the body which was a disgraceful act from its wearer. [1] : 14  In the chapter Jijiupian《急就篇》by Shi You also dating from the Western Han dynasty in the Shuowen Jiezi , the set of attire called zheku (Chinese :褶袴) consisted of a trousers called zhekukun (Chinese :褶袴褌) which was covered by the chanyu (Chinese :襜褕), [34] the chanyu was a short and tight knee-length robe instead of being long in length. [17] A kun (Chinese :褌) was a form of Chinese trousers with crotches as opposed to the ku. [17]

A guard wearing an ankle-length zhijupao with kun, Western Han dynasty Archer figurine from the Tomb of the King of Chu Beidong Mountain Xuzhou Jiangsu Western Han Dynasty 2nd century BCE MH 02.jpg
A guard wearing an ankle-length zhijupao with kun , Western Han dynasty

With time, when the kun became more popular, the zhijupao, which was shorter and easier to put on than the qujupao; the zhijupao then started replacing the qujupao which had been long enough to cover the ku. [18] : 32  The kun, however, were only popular for some people of certain occupations, such as warriors, servants, and the lower class, in the Han dynasty and was not widely used by the general population as it was not easily accepted by the traditional etiquette of the Han culture. [17] Therefore, the kun was never able to replace the ku; moreover, the design of the ancient ku had also evolved with time becoming long enough to cover the thighs, with some parts even covering the upper parts of the hips, such as the qiongku which was especially designed for women in the Western Han dynasty court. [17] By the middle of the Western Han dynasty, the qujupao became nearly obsolete; and by the late Western Han dynasty, the shenyi were straight rather than spiralled. [12] In the Eastern Han dynasty, very few people wore shenyi. [27]

History of later development

Song dynasty

Su Shi, a song dynasty Confucian scholar, wearing the shenyi Su shi.jpg
Su Shi, a song dynasty Confucian scholar, wearing the shenyi

In the Song dynasty, Neo-Confucian philosophies determined the conduct code of the scholars which then had a great influence on the lives of the people. [35] : 184  Zhu Xi and his Neo-Confucian colleagues developed a new cosmology, moral philosophy, and political principles based on intellectuals and elites sharing responsibility for the dynasty's management. [10]

The Neo-Confucians also re-constructed the meaning of the shenyi, restored, and re-invented it as the attire of the Neo-Confucian scholars in order to distinguish themselves from other scholars who came from school of thoughts. [10] Some Song dynasty scholars, such as Sima Guang and Zhu Xi, made their own version of the scholar gown based on the Liji , while other scholars such as Jin Lüxiang promoted it among his peers. [19] In his Zhuzi jiali《朱子家禮》, Zhu Xi described the style of the long garment in considerable detail. [10] However, the shenyi used as a scholar gown was not popular in the Song dynasty and was even considered as "strange garment" despite some scholar-officials appreciated it. [10] [19] Zhu Xi himself hesitated to wear it in public due to the social stigma which were associated to it; Zhu Xi was also accused for wearing strange garments by Shi Shengzu, who also accused Zhu Xi's followers of defying the social conventions. [10] Sima Guang, on the other hand, had the habit to wear the shenyi in private in his garden. [10]

According to philosopher and ancient scholar Lü Dalin (1044–91), noblemen and scholars used the shenyi for informality and ease, whereas commoners wore it as formal clothing. The garment was worn by court officials, noblemen and noblewomen, palace ladies, scholars and their wives, artisans, merchants, and farmers. It was the traditional informal attire of the ancient nobility. The robe became the formal clothing of commoners in the ancient Chinese world, reversing this reasoning. The Song Neo-Confucians praised the robe not only for its elegance and simplicity but also because it represented an essential political function. [10] In the Song dynasty, the shenyi was made with white fabric. [19]

Ming dynasty

In the Ming dynasty, in line with the attempt of the Hongwu Emperor to replace all the foreign clothing used by the Mongols of Yuan, with the support of the Chinese elites who had supported the military campaigns against the Mongols. The Ming dynasty court thus gave many court commissions to the scholars who then helped enshrine Neo-Confucianism which was exemplified by Zhu Xi's Zhuzi jiali《朱子家禮》as the orthodoxy of the Ming dynasty leading to the sudden rise in popularity of the Confucian shenyi. [10] This form of shenyi had suddenly become a popular form of robe for the scholars in 1368 and also became the official attire of the scholars. [10] Moreover, the shenyi had become a symbol of status and Han ethnicity as it was devoid of all foreign influence and also denoted Chinese intellectual pride and superiority. [10]

Transition period between the Ming and Qing dynasties

The scholar robe's shenyi was a significant topic during the transition period between the Ming dynasty and the Qing dynasty. Huang Zongxi chose Huang Runyu's research version to serve as his contrast. According to Huang Zongxi's research, the scholar's robe shenyi represented the transfer of literati political values instead of dynastic politics and imperial orthodoxy. He said that the scholar's robe's style and function exactly matched the "great implication" (da yi) of literati values. Identifying the specific portion known as ren is the main distinction between these two versions. Ren was casually marked in the center of Huang Runyu's rendition and referred to the entire front piece, folding over the other side. The robe's expanded bottom, known as xuren, was fashionable throughout the Ming dynasty and can be seen in numerous Ming paintings. [10]

On the other hand, Huang Zongxi called ren the collar on the right folding to the left. This definition of ren is narrow and particular, referring to the collar that runs from the neck to the ground. The phrase xuren (continuing the ren) in Records of Rituals refers to the continuance of the collar. Xuren is no longer a name for a robe portion but rather a description of how ren is tailored, according to Huang Zongxi. [10]

Late 19th century to early 20th century

In the 19th century, some members of the gentry class still regarded the shenyi as a Chinese symbol and as having a proper status in society. [10] The Catholic missionaries in the 19th century who visited China perceived Chinese religions (being constituted of the sanjiao) as a degeneration of "true monotheism", widespread superstition, and idolatry while the Protestant missionaries perceived them as being religions with corrupted priesthood, mindless ritualism and idolatry in the Buddhist and Taoist worship. [36] The missionaries also viewed Christianity as being a higher civilizing force than Confucianism. [36] However, this view was not accepted by all the Chinese people, such as Kang Youwei and Cheng Huanzhang. [36]

Kang Youwei, who was an influential advocate of reforms in late Qing dynasty to the early Republican period, [37] rejected the idea that Confucianism was defective when compared to Christianity. Kang Youwei thus wrote a controversial book in 1897, called Kongzi gaizhi kao《 孔子改制考》(lit. 'Confucius the Reformer'), in which cited the rufu (儒服, lit. 'Confucian robe'). [36]

Man wearing the rufu attire consisting of the white Confucian shenyi with cap (front row), 1910s Rochanfu.jpg
Man wearing the rufu attire consisting of the white Confucian shenyi with cap (front row), 1910s
Chen Huanzhang, the founder of the Confucian Religion Association, wearing rufu which consisted of the Confucian shenyi attire and a cap Chen Huanzhang Hanfu2.jpg
Chen Huanzhang, the founder of the Confucian Religion Association, wearing rufu which consisted of the Confucian shenyi attire and a cap

Cheng Huanzhang, who was the founder of the Confucian Religion Association (Kongjiao hui 孔教會) in 1912 [37] [38] and also established the zongsheng hui (宗圣会) in Gaoyao in Guangdong, [36] aimed to bring advocates together for the restoration of Confucian texts to the educational curriculum and the official recognition of Confucianism as China's national religion. [37] Thus, in the written by Cheng Huanzhang also wrote the Kongjiaolun, where he argued that the rufu was the clothing attire worn by the Confucianism religion priests. [39] He also listed 12 attributes which were associated with the religiosity of Confucianism: one of these attributes was about rufu, which according to him, was a specific form of attire consisting of the Confucian shenyi and a cap which had been designed by Confucius for his followers to wear. [38] However, despite the support of the prominent literati following the opening of the Kongjiao hui, which had also become the most illustrious and influential organization of its time, [38] the parliament voted to not accord an official recognition to Confucianism as a ‘religion’ in both 1913 and 1916; the parliament gave official institutional status to five religions: Buddhism, Daoism, Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam, and excluded Confucianism. [37]

21st century

The shenyi reappeared in the 21st century in China. The ancient-style shenyi in the form of both qujupao and the zhijupao reappeared and is worn by both men and women. [10] In 2003, a man named Wang Letian wore a DIY raojinshenyi on the streets. [10]

Types and styles

Qujupao-style

Standard qujupao

The qujupao was a robe which was long enough to cover the ankles of its wearer; it has an overlapping front lapel which closed on the right side in a style called jiaoling youren ; however, its right front piece was cut as a triangular front piece that crossed in front of the body and has rounded under hem. [1] : 13–14  [12] The qujupao would curve and wraps the dress to the back of its wearer [11] allowing the contrasting or decorative edging of the robe would create a spiralling effect when encircling the body. [12] The collar of the qujupao was deliberately made in such ways to prevent any part of its wearer's body from being exposed. [18] : 16 

Raojinshenyi

Another version of the qujupao is raojinshenyi (Chinese : 繞襟深衣 ; lit.'winding lapel deep clothing'); this version of the qujupao can typically be found in the Mawangdui tomb No.1 of the Western Han dynasty. [40] : 41–42  [41] : 16  The raojinshenyi is characterized by overlapping curved front lapel which is elongated enough to spiral around the entire body. [40] : 41–42  It typically has a silk belt which is tied closely around the waist and hips to prevent the garment from loosening; the position of the belt depends on the length of the garment. [40] : 41  The raojinshenyi can have narrow sleeves or broad and loose sleeves. [40] : 41–42 

Zhijupao-style

Standard zhijupao

The front opening of the zhijupao would fall straight down instead of having a curving front. [11]

Confucian shenyi

The shenyi in later dynasties directly descended from the shenyi worn in earlier dynasties The shenyi was originally made of ramie cultivated in China. Ramie fabric needs to be bleached and produced 45 to 60 centimetre wide textile.[ citation needed ]

Similarly to the shenyi worn from Zhou to Han dynasties, the shenyi designed in Song dynasty followed the same principles. The yi (衣, blouse) and chang (裳, skirt) of the shenyi is sewn together. [19] The upper part is made up of 4 panels of ramie fabric, representing four seasons of a year. 2 panels are fold and sewn to cover the upper body. Another 2 panels of ramie fabric are sewn onto each side of the yi as two sleeves. The lower part is made up of 12 panels of fabric sewn together (十二片縫合), representing 12 months a year. [22] Its sleeves are wide with black cuff. It is also tied with a wide belt called dadai (大帶) is tied in the front. According to the Japanese scholar Riken Nakai's shenyi template, there are four design features of the Shenyi dressing: upper and lower connections, square collar, length to the ankle, and additional coverage. [3] In the Song dynasty, the shenyi was made with white fabric. [19]

Diyi

The Diyi was a set of attire which was worn as ceremonial clothing; a shenyi was also part of the diyi.

Influences and derivatives

Korea

In Korea, the shenyi is called simui (Korean : 심의; Hanja : 深衣). [6] [42] It was introduced from China in the middle of Goryeo; however, the exact date of its introduction is unknown. [6] The simui was worn as an outer garment by the seonbi . [43] The seonbi in Joseon imitated the clothing attire designed by Zhu Xi, i.e. the shenyi and the literati hat. [44] The seonbi, who valued the simui greatly, embraced it as a symbol of Confucian civilization, and continued to publish treatise on the simui starting from the sixteenth century AD. [10] The simui also influenced other clothing, such as the cheollik , the nansam , and hakchangui . [6]

The simui is white and in terms of design, it has wide sleeves and is composed on an upper and lower part which is attached together (衣裳連衣; Uisangyeonui) at the waistline; the lower part has 12 panels which represents 12 months. [42] [43] It is a high-waist robe and a belt (大帶; dadae) is tied to the simui. [42] [43] There were also various forms of simui which developed in the Joseon. [6] [9]

Japan

The early Tokugawa period in Japan, some Japanese scholars, such as Seika Fujiwara and Hayashi Razan, who self-proclaimed themselves as followers of Zhu Xi wore the Confucian shenyi and gave lectures in it. [10]

Fujiwara Seika, an Edo Confucian scholar, in the Confucian shenyi and fujin A portrait of Fujiwara Seika Teng Yuan Xing Wo Xiang .jpg
Fujiwara Seika, an Edo Confucian scholar, in the Confucian shenyi and fujin

Seika Fujiwara, was usually perceived as the patriarch of the Japanese Neo-Confucian movement during the Tokugawa period. [45] : 167  Seika used to be a Buddhist monk before turning to Confucianism [46] : 104  and probably renounced Buddhism in the year 1594. [45] : 167 

Hayashi Razan, an Edo Confucian scholar, wearing the Confucian shenyi and fujin Razan Hayashi.jpg
Hayashi Razan, an Edo Confucian scholar, wearing the Confucian shenyi and fujin

According to his biographer and follower, Hayashi Razan, Seika even appeared in front of Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1600 dressed in the Chinese-style Confucian shenyi and fujin which were prescribed for rituals by Zhu Xi; [45] : 171  this event also marked the beginning of the popularity of Confucianism in Japan. [46] : 104 

Vietnam

Shenyi
Shenyi 1.jpg
Modern reproduction of a Confucian shenyi.

In the Le dynasty, there were some ancient statues left behind, showing Confucian scholars wearing shenyi. But shenyi was not only worn by Confucian scholars; it was also commoners. Until the Nguyen dynasty, shenyi was still seen in a number of photos.

Similar looking garments

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The 'shi' was a social stratum in ancient China which ranked just above the class of commoners, see Sheng, 1995. After the Spring and Autumn period, it became a term for scholars and intellectuals, see Zhang, 2015, pp. 257
  2. ↑ The early prescriptions refer to the rules and regulations which were previously established in the Liji

Related Research Articles

Chinese clothing, including traditional Hanfu, ethnic minority garments, and modern adaptations of indigenous styles, is a vital aspect of Chinese culture and civilization. For thousands of years, Chinese clothing has evolved with dynastic traditions, foreign influences, and cultural exchanges, adapting to the needs of each era. Each dynasty maintained specific styles, colors, and forms that reflected social class distinctions and regional diversity. Beyond its practical functions—such as protection from weather and modesty—clothing also served as a cultural marker, distinguishing social roles, rank, and relationships. Ancient Chinese attire reflected the social and political structures of its time, while also showcasing textile, dyeing, and embroidery techniques. It stands as a testament to the creativity and ingenuity of the Chinese people, as well as the rich intercultural exchanges that shaped its development across centuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fujin (headgear)</span> Chinese headwear in the form of a hood typically black in colour

Fujin is a type of guanmao (冠帽), a male traditional headgear generally made from a black fabric in China and Korea. The fujin is a form of hood made on one width of cloth, from which its Chinese name derived from. It was usually worn with Shenyi in the Ming Dynasty. The fujin was later adopted in Joseon where it became known as bokgeon and became known as the 'hat of the Confucian scholars'. The fujin also influenced the development of other headwear such as the futou.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zhiduo (clothing)</span> A traditional Chinese robe for men and Buddhist monks

Zhiduo, also known as zhishen when it is decorated with outside pendulums, and haiqing, refers to two types of traditional changyi or paofu which were worn as outer robes by men in the broad sense; i.e. the casual zhiduo in Hanfu and the priests’ zhiduo, in the broad sense. As a specific term, the zhiduo refers to the former. The zhiduo was also called daopao by Wang Zhishen in the Ming dynasty although the daopao refers to another kind of paofu. Nowadays, the haiqing is sometimes referred as daopao. In present days Taiwan, the haiqing is also worn by the Zhenyi Taoist priests. The term "haiqing" can also be a specific term which refers to the long black or yellow robe worn by Buddhist monks.

A yuanlingshan is a type of round-collared upper garment in the traditional Chinese style of clothing known as Hanfu; it is also referred to as a yuanlingpao or a panlingpao when used as a robe. The yuanlingshan and yuanlingpao were both developed under the influence of ancient Chinese clothing, known as Hufu, originating from the Donghu people during the early Han dynasty and later by the Wuhu, including the Xianbei people, during the Six Dynasties period. The yuanlingpao is an article of formal attire primarily worn by men, although in certain dynasties, such as the Tang dynasty, it was also fashionable for women to wear. In the Tang dynasty, the yuanlingpao could be transformed into the fanlingpao using buttons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daopao</span> Traditional Chinese attire for men

Daopao, also known as xuezi when used as a Xifu during Chinese opera performances, and deluo when it is blue in colour, is a traditional form of paofu in Hanfu and is also one of the most distinctive form of traditional clothing for the Han Chinese. The daopao was one of the most common traditional form of outer robe worn by men. Daopao literally means "Taoist robe"; however, despite its name, the daopao were and is worn by men, and did not imply that its wearer had some affiliation to taoism. The daopao can be dated back to at least the Ming dynasty but had actually been worn since the Song dynasty. Initially the daopao was a form of casual clothing which was worn by the middle or lower class in the Ming dynasty. In the middle and late Ming, it was one of the most common form of robes worn by men as casual clothing. The daopao was also a popular formal wear by the Ming dynasty scholars in their daily lives. It was also the daily clothing for the literati scholars in the Ming dynasty. In the late Ming, it was also a popular form of clothing among the external officials and eunuchs sometimes wore it. The daopao was also introduced in Korea during the Joseon period, where it became known as dopo and was eventually localized in its current form.

Panling lanshan (盤領襴衫), also referred as lanshan (襴衫), is a traditional Chinese attire for men. It is a specific form of round collar robe, known as yuanlingpao, which is characterized with the use of hem, called hanglan (横襕), also referred as lan (襕)). The panling lanshan was a new type of garment, developed in the Northern and Southern dynasties through the localization of the round-collar garments which had been introduced by the ethnic minorities, such as the Xianbei. Panling lanshan continued to be worn in the Tang dynasty. The panling lanshan along with the futou was used as the Tang dynasty attire of scholars and officials. The scholars' attire in the succeeding dynasties followed the style of the panling lanshan of the Tang dynasty. It is also a formal attire worn by scholars and students (生員) taking the imperial examination in Ming dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diyi</span> Chinese ceremonial attire for empresses and crown princess

Diyi, also called known as huiyi and miaofu, is the historical Chinese attire worn by the empresses of the Song dynasty and by the empresses and crown princesses in the Ming Dynasty. The diyi also had different names based on its colour, such as yudi, quedi, and weidi. It is a formal wear meant only for ceremonial purposes. It is a form of shenyi, and is embroidered with long-tail pheasants and circular flowers. It is worn with guan known as fengguan which is typically characterized by the absence of dangling string of pearls by the sides. It was first recorded as Huiyi in the Zhou dynasty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women's clothing in China</span> Clothing of womens in china

In China, women had different kinds of clothes in ancient times. Those clothes changed with the dynasty. For examples, in the 1920s, the Cheongsam was fashionable among socialites and upperclass women; during the 1960s, very austere clothing styles were prevalent; today, a wide variety of fashions are worn. Different provinces and regions of China also have different clothing styles.

<i>Hanfu</i> Traditional dress of the Han Chinese people

Hanfu, are the traditional styles of clothing worn by the Han Chinese since the 2nd millennium BCE. There are several representative styles of hanfu, such as the ruqun, the aoqun, the beizi and the shenyi, and the shanku.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Round collar robe</span> Round collar robe worn in East Asia

The Round collar robe, also called yuanlingpao and yuanlingshan in China, danryeong in Korea, was a style of paofu, a Chinese robe, worn in ancient China, which was long enough to cover the entire body of its wearer. The Chinese yuanlingpao was developed under the influences of the Hufu worn by the Donghu people and by the Wuhu. Depending on time period, the Chinese yuanlingpao also had some traces of influences from the Hufu worn by the Sogdian. The Chinese yuanlingpao continued to evolve, developing distinctive Chinese characteristics with time and lost its Hufu connotation. It eventually became fully integrated in the Hanfu system for the imperial and court dress attire. Under the influence of ancient China, the Chinese yuanlingpao was adopted by the rest of the East Asian cultural sphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mianfu</span>

Mianfu is a kind of Chinese clothing in hanfu; it was worn by emperors, kings, and princes, and in some instances by the nobles in historical China from the Shang to the Ming dynasty. The mianfu is the highest level of formal dress worn by Chinese monarchs and the ruling families in special ceremonial events such as coronation, morning audience, ancestral rites, worship, new year's audience and other ceremonial activities. There were various forms of mianfu, and the mianfu also had its own system of attire called the mianfu system which was developed back in the Western Zhou dynasty. The mianfu was used by every dynasty from Zhou dynasty onward until the collapse of the Ming dynasty. The Twelve Ornaments were used on the traditional imperial robes in China, including on the mianfu. These Twelve Ornaments were later adopted in clothing of other ethnic groups; for examples, the Khitan and the Jurchen rulers adopted the Twelve ornaments in 946 AD and in 1140 AD respectively. The Korean kings have also adopted clothing embellished with nine out of the Twelve ornaments since 1065 AD after the Liao emperor had bestowed a nine-symbol robe to the Korean king, King Munjong, in 1043 AD where it became known as gujangbok.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zaju chuishao fu</span> Historical womens clothing style in China

Zaju chuishao fu, also called Guiyi, and sometimes referred as "Swallow-tailed Hems and Flying Ribbons clothing" or "swallow tail" clothing for short in English, is a form of set of attire in hanfu which was worn by Chinese women. The zaju chuishao fu can be traced back to the pre-Han period and appears to have originated the sandi of the Zhou dynasty; it then became popular during the Han, Cao Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties. It was a common form of aristocratic costumes in the Han and Wei dynasties and was also a style of formal attire for elite women. The zaju chuishao fu can be further divided into two categories of clothing style based on its cut and construction: the guipao, and the guichang.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paofu</span> Long Chinese robes

Paofu, also known as pao for short, is a form of a long, one-piece robe in Hanfu, which is characterized by the natural integration of the upper and lower part of the robe which is cut from a single fabric. The term is often used to refer to the jiaolingpao and the yuanlingpao. The jiaolingpao was worn since the Zhou dynasty and became prominent in the Han dynasty. The jiaolingpao was a unisex, one-piece robe; while it was worn mainly by men, women could also wear it. It initially looked similar to the ancient shenyi; however, these two robes are structurally different from each other. With time, the ancient shenyi disappeared while the paofu evolved gaining different features in each succeeding dynasties; the paofu continues to be worn even in present day. The term paofu refers to the "long robe" worn by ancient Chinese, and can include several form of Chinese robes of various origins and cuts, including Changshan,Qipao, Shenyi,Tieli, Zhisun, Yesa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terlig</span> A type of robe of Mongol origins

Terlig, also known as tieli or bianxianao or Yaoxianao[zi] in Chinese, or commonly referred as Mongol dress or plait-line robe, is an archetypal type of Mongol clothing for men.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shanku</span> Chinese outfit composed of a top and trousers

Shanku is a generic term which refers to a two-piece set of attire in Hanfu, which is typically composed of a youren yi, a Chinese upper garment which typically overlaps and closes on the right side which could be called shan, ru, ao, and a pair of long trousers ku. As a form of daily attire, the shanku was mainly worn by people from lower social status in China, such as labourers, shopkeepers, or retainers from wealthy household. The shanku was originally worn by both genders. Up until the mid-20th century, it was popular in China and outside of China where it was worn by overseas Chinese in countries, such as Singapore, Malaysia, Suriname, etc. It is still worn in present-day China and can be found in rural areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ru (upper garment)</span> A form of Chinese upper garment

Ru, sometimes referred to as shan, ao, and yi, is a form of traditional Chinese upper garment, or coat, or jacket, which typically has a right closure; however, they may also have a front central opening. It is traditional everyday wear for women of the Han Chinese ethnic group. It can be worn in combination with a skirt in a style called ruqun, or a pair of trousers in a style called shanku.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xuanduan</span> A dark Chinese court dress

Xuanduan, also known as yuanduan, is a form of Chinese court dress which was made of dark or black fabric. It is a form of yichang. It was worn since the Western Zhou dynasty. During the Ming dynasty, under the reign of Emperor Jiajing, the xuanduan became a model for the regulations reforms related to yanfu worn by the emperor and officials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Daojiao fushi</span> Dress code of Taoist devotees and practitioners

Daojiao fushi, also known as Taoist clothing, are religious clothing and adornment worn by devotees and practitioners of Taoism, an indigenous religion and life philosophy in China. Chinese culture attaches great importance to "cap and gown" are seen as important signs of levels of etiquettes; it is also a visible marker of the Taoist identity. Taoist ritual garments (sometimes referred as daoyi are forms of ritual clothing. These clothing worn by the Taoist priests are inherited from the Han Chinese traditional clothing and holds clear Taoist cultural meaning. When performing rituals and important rituals, Taoist priests wear ceremonial attires which appear to be aligned with elements of Chinese cosmology; these ceremonial attires are therefore strong spiritual intermediaries acting on the part of the Taoist devotees community. Different forms of clothing will be worn by Taoist priests in accordance to ritual types and obvious distinctions are found in the attire of Taoist priests based on their different positions to the altar. There were also codes which would stipulate the appropriate Taoist attire to be worn during both ritual performance and when being off duty.

Garment collars in hanfu are diverse and come in several shapes, including jiaoling, duijin, yuanling, liling, fangling, tanling. Some forms of collars were indigenous to China while others had been adopted from the Hufu of other non-Han Chinese ethnic minorities and/or from the clothing worn by foreigners.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Hua, Mei (2011). Chinese Clothing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521186896. OCLC   1277432082.
  2. 1 2 Lynch, Annette; Strauss, Mitchel D. (2014). Ethnic dress in the United States : a cultural encyclopedia. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN   9780759121508 . Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Kuo, Y.-P.; Vongphantuset, J.; Joneurairatana, E. (November 16, 2021). "View of From Eastern inspiration to unisex fashion: a case study on traditional Chinese Shenyi attire". Silpakorn University, Thailand. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
  4. ↑ Theobald, Ulrich (2013). "Zhuzi jiali 朱子家禮". www.chinaknowledge.de. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  5. 1 2 3 Zhao, Yin; Cai, Xinzhi (2014). Snapshots of Chinese Culture. Los Angeles: Bridge21 Publications. ISBN   9781626430037. OCLC   912499249.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "심의 (深衣)" [Simui]. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean).
  7. 1 2 "Liji : Wang Zhi《王制 - Wang Zhi》". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 2022-06-23. 有虞氏皇而祭，深衣而養老。夏后氏收而祭，燕衣而養老。殷人冔而祭，縞衣而養老。周人冕而祭，玄衣而養老。
  8. ↑ Wang, Chen (2014-09-01). "Conservation study of Ming dynasty silk costumes excavated in Jiangsu region, China". Studies in Conservation. 59 (sup1): S177–S180. doi:10.1179/204705814X13975704319154. ISSN   0039-3630. S2CID   191384101.
  9. 1 2 "심의 (深衣)" [Simui]. Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture . Retrieved 2022-03-20.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Hu, Minghui (2016). "The Scholar's Robe: Material Culture and Political Power in Early Modern China". Frontiers of History in China. 11 (3): 339–375. doi:10.3868/s020-005-016-0020-4. ISSN   1673-3401.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sheng, Angela (1995). "The Disappearance of Silk Weaves with Weft Effects in Early China". Chinese Science (12): 41–76. ISSN   0361-9001. JSTOR   43290485 . Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Lullo, Sheri A. (September 2019). "Trailing Locks and Flowing Robes: Dimensions of Beauty during China's Han dynasty (206 bc – ad 220)". Costume. 53 (2): 231–255. doi:10.3366/cost.2019.0122. S2CID   204710548 . Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  13. ↑ Ho, Wei; Lee, Eun-young (2009). "Modern Meaning of Han Chinese Clothing" (PDF). Journal of the Korea Fashion & Costume Design Association. 11 (1): 99–109.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Hunan Museum. "Plain Gauze Gown". Hunan Museum. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  15. ↑ Lüsted, Marcia Amidon (2017). Ancient Chinese daily life (1 ed.). New York: New York : Rosen Publishing. pp. 14–22. ISBN   978-1-4777-8889-9. OCLC   957525459.
  16. 1 2 Zhang, Qizhi (2015). "The Rich and Colourful Social Life in Ancient China". An introduction to Chinese history and culture. China Academic Library. Heidelberg: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. pp. 249–282. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46482-3. ISBN   978-3-662-46482-3.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Xu, Rui; Sparks, Diane (2011-01-01). "Symbolism and Evolution of Ku-form in Chinese Costume". Research Journal of Textile and Apparel. 15 (1): 11–21. doi:10.1108/RJTA-15-01-2011-B002. ISSN   1560-6074.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Zang, Yingchun; 臧迎春. (2003). Zhongguo chuan tong fu shi中国传统服饰 [Chinese traditional costumes and ornaments]. 李竹润., 王德华., 顾映晨. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Wu zhou chuan bo chu ban she [五洲传播出版社]. ISBN   7-5085-0279-5. OCLC   55895164.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Zhu, Ruixi; 朱瑞熙 (2016). A social history of middle-period China : the Song, Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. Bangwei Zhang, Fusheng Liu, Chongbang Cai, Zengyu Wang, Peter Ditmanson, Bang Qian Zhu. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN   978-1-107-16786-5. OCLC   953576345.
  20. ↑ Hunan20. "Silk Painting with a Man Riding a Dragon Design of Warring States Period". Virtual collection of Asian Masterpieces (VCM). Retrieved 2022-06-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ↑ Hunan21. "Silk Painting with a Lady, Phoenix and Dragon Designs of Warring States Period". Virtual collection of Asian Masterpieces (VCM). Retrieved 2022-06-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Liji :《深衣 - Shen Yi》". ctext.org. Translated by James Legge. Retrieved 2021-02-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hsu, N. (August 31, 2021). "Dressing as a Sage: Clothing and Self-cultivation in Early Confucian Thought". Indiana University. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
  24. ↑ "Liji : 《玉藻 - Yu Zao》". ctext.org. Translated by James Legge. Retrieved 2022-06-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  25. ↑ David, Michael; Ing, Kaulana (2012). The Dysfunction of Ritual in Early Confucianism. Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199924905. OCLC   865508152.
  26. 1 2 3 Feng, Ge; Du, Zhenming (2015). Traditional Chinese Rites and Rituals. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN   9781443887830. OCLC   979864758.
  27. 1 2 "Costume in the Han Dynasty". China Style. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
  28. ↑ Hong Kong Heritage Museum. "Images of Females in Chinese History: Thematic Gallery". Hong Kong Heritage Museum. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  29. ↑ "'Xin Qi embroidery' floss-silk padded gown with lozenge pattern on brown silk gauze". Hunan Museum. Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  30. ↑ "Fang Yan:《第四》". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  31. ↑ "Shuo Wen Jie Zi : 《衣部》". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  32. ↑ "Shiji:《惠景閒侯者年表》". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  33. ↑ "Shiji :《魏其武安侯列傳》". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Retrieved 2022-06-23.
  34. ↑ "Ji Jiu Pian - 褶袴 - Chinese Text Project". ctext.org (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Archived from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-18. 襜褕袷複褶袴褌
  35. ↑ Xu, Guobin; Chen, Yanhui; Xu, Lianhua (2018), Xu, Guobin; Chen, Yanhui; Xu, Lianhua (eds.), "Clothing, Food, Housing and Transportation", Introduction to Chinese Culture: Cultural History, Arts, Festivals and Rituals, Singapore: Springer, pp. 181–203, doi:10.1007/978-981-10-8156-9_8, ISBN   978-981-10-8156-9 , retrieved 2021-02-14
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 LEONG, TAY WEI (2012-08-16). Saving the Chinese Nation and The World: Religion and Confucian Reformation, 1880s-1937 (Thesis thesis).
  37. 1 2 3 4 5 Murray, Julia K (2014-08-28). "A heavenly aura: Confucian modes of relic veneration". Journal of the British Academy. 2. doi: 10.5871/jba/002.059 .
  38. 1 2 3 4 Chen, Hsi-yüan (2013). "RELIGIONIZING CONFUCIANISM AND THE RE-ORIENTATION OF CONFUCIAN TRADITION IN MODERN CHINA". In Eggert, Marion; Hölscher, Lucian (eds.). Religion and Secularity: Transformations and Transfers of Religious Discourses in Europe and Asia. Brill. pp. 231–256. ISBN   9789004251335. JSTOR   10.1163/j.ctv2gjwv0k.17.
  39. ↑ Blanchon, Flora; Park-Barjot, Rang-Ri (2007). La nouvel age de Confucius : modern Confucianism in China and South Korea (in French). Paris: Presses Paris Sorbonne. ISBN   9782840505020. OCLC   963529613.
  40. 1 2 3 4 Gao, Chunming (1987). Zhou, Xun (ed.). 5000 Years of Chinese Costumes (English translation ed.). China Books & Periodicals. ISBN   978-0835118224. OCLC   762100301.
  41. ↑ Zhou, Xun (1984). Zhongguo fu shi wu qian nian《中國服飾五千年》 [5000 Years Of Chinese Costumes] (in Chinese). Hong Kong: The Commercial Press. ISBN   9789620750212. OCLC   743416465.
  42. 1 2 3 Nam, Min-yi; Han, Myung-Sook (2000). "A Study on the Items and Shapes of Korean Shrouds". The International Journal of Costume Culture. 3 (2): 100–123.
  43. 1 2 3 Lee, Samuel Songhoon (2013). Hanbok : Timeless fashion tradition. Seoul: Seoul, Korea : Seoul Selection. pp. 58–59. ISBN   978-89-97639-41-0. OCLC   871061483.
  44. ↑ Yunesŭk'o Han'guk Wiwŏnhoe (2005). Korea Journal. Vol. 45. Korean National Commission for UNESCO. p. 125.
  45. 1 2 3 McCullen, James (2021). "Chapter 8 Confucian Spectacle in Edo Hayashi Razan and Cultural display". The Worship of Confucius in Japan. Brill. ISBN   9781684175994. OCLC   1290719734.
  46. 1 2 Köck, Stephan; Scheid, Bernhard; Pickl-Kolaczia, Brigitte (2021). Religion, Power, and the Rise of Shinto in Early Modern Japan. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN   9781350181076.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.