Spirit (animating force)

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In philosophy and religion, spirit is the vital principle or animating essence within humans or, in some views, all living things. Although views of spirit vary between different belief systems, when spirit is contrasted with the soul, the former is often seen as a basic natural force, principle or substance, whereas the latter is used to described the organized structure of an individual being's consciousness, in humans including their personality. Spirit as a substance may also be contrasted with matter, where it is usually seen as more subtle, an idea put forth for example in the Principia Mathematica. [1]

Contents

Etymology

The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French esperit. Its source is Latin spīritus, whose original meaning was "breath, breathing" and hence "spirit, soul, courage, vigor"; [2] its ultimate origin is a Proto-Indo-European root *(s)peis.

In Latin, spīritus was distinct from Latin anima, whose etymological meaning was also "breathing" (PIE root *h₂enh₁-), [3] yet which had taken a slightly different meaning, namely "soul".

The distinction between "soul" and "spirit" in English mirrors that between "psykhē" and "pneuma" in Classical Greek, with both words having a connection to breathing:

A distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions: Arabic nafs (نفس) opposite rūḥ (روح); Hebrew neshama (נְשָׁמָה‎nəšâmâh) or nephesh (נֶ֫פֶשׁ‎nép̄eš) (in Hebrew neshama comes from the root NŠM or "breath") opposite ruach (רוּחַ‎rúaħ). (Note, however, that in Semitic just as in Indo-European, this dichotomy has not always been as neat historically as it has come to be taken over a long period of development: Both נֶ֫פֶשׁ‎ (root נפשׁ‎) and רוּחַ‎ (root רוח‎), as well as cognate words in various Semitic languages, including Arabic, also preserve meanings involving miscellaneous air phenomena: "breath", "wind", and even "odour". [5] [6] [7] )

Similar concepts in other languages include Chinese Ling and hun (靈魂) and Sanskrit akasha / atman [2] (see also prana ). Some languages use a word for spirit often closely related (if not synonymous) to mind . Examples include the German Geist (related to the English word ghost) or the French l'esprit. [8] English versions of the Bible most commonly translate the Hebrew word ruach (רוח; wind) as "the spirit." [9]

Alternatively, Hebrew texts commonly use the word nephesh . Kabbalists regard nephesh as one of the five parts of the Jewish soul, where nephesh (animal) refers to the physical being and its animal instincts. Similarly, Scandinavian, Baltic, and Slavic languages use the words for breath to express concepts similar to "the spirit". [2]

Views

Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy generally, the spirit (pneuma, literally "breath") was thought to be the animating force in living creatures.

In Stoicism, spirit is an all-pervading force frequently identified with God. The soul (psyche) was thought to be a particular kind of pneuma, which was present in humans and animals, but not in plants. [10]

Christianity

The Christian New Testament uses the term pneuma to refer to "spirit", "spiritual" and specifically to the Holy Spirit. [11] The relationship between the Holy Spirit in Christianity and spirit in other religions is unclear. The distinction between psyche and pneuma may be borrowed from the Hellenistic religions through Hellenistic Jews such as Philo, a view held by the so-called History of religions school. [12]

However, others think that the Holy Spirit may actually resemble the Stoic concept of the anima mundi , or world soul, more than the pneuma. According to theologian Erik Konsmo, there is no relationship between the pneuma in Greek philosophy and the pneuma in Christianity beyond the use of the word itself. [12]

The new religious movement Christian Science uses "Spirit" as one of seven synonyms for God, as in: "Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love" [13]

Latter Day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. (1805-1844) rejected the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes." [14] Regarding the soul, Joseph Smith wrote "And the Gods formed man from the dust of the ground, and took his spirit (that is, the man’s spirit), and put it into him; and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul." [15] Thus, the soul is the combination of a spirit with a body (although most members of the Church use "soul" and "spirit" interchangeably). In Latter-Day Saint scripture, spirits are sometimes referred to as "intelligences". [16] However, other LDS scriptures teach that God organized the spirits out of a pre-existing substance called "intelligence" or "the light of truth". [17] While this may seem confusing, compare how a programmer writes an algorithm by organizing lines of logical code. The logic always existed, independent of the programmer, but it is the creator who organizes it into a living spirit / intelligence / soul.

17th century Europe

As recently as 1628 and 1633 respectively, both William Harvey and René Descartes still speculated that somewhere within the body, in a special locality, there was a "vital spirit" or "vital force", which animated the whole bodily frame, just as the engine in a factory moves the machinery in it. [18]

Animism

Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals, or landforms (in Japanese: kami ): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities. [19] Compare the concepts of ancestral spirits and of spirit animals.

Chinese culture

The traditional Chinese concept of qi is a kind of vital force forming part of any living being. The exact meaning of the term morphed over the course of the development of Chinese philosophy. The literal meaning of the Chinese language term qi (气), like many analogous concepts in other cultures, derives from the word for "breath"; [2] this may have been the meaning of the word in the Analects of Confucius. [20]

Gods, especially anthropromorphic gods, are sometimes thought to have qi and be a reflection of the microcosm of qi in humans. [21] Qi also was in natural forces, where it could be controlled by gods and harnessed by magicians. [22]

Jung

According to C. G. Jung (in a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, 20 October 1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit”):

The connection between spirit and life is one of those problems involving factors of such complexity that we have to be on our guard lest we ourselves get caught in the net of words in which we seek to ensnare these great enigmas. For how can we bring into the orbit of our thought those limitless complexities of life which we call "Spirit" or "Life" unless we clothe them in verbal concepts, themselves mere counters of the intellect? The mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. "Spirit" and "Life" are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have been pushed back and forth on the thinker's chessboard. The problem must have begun in the grey dawn of time, when someone made the bewildering discovery that the living breath which left the body of the dying man in the last death-rattle meant more than just air in motion. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach (Hebrew), ruch (Arabic), roho (Swahili) mean 'spirit' no less clearly than πνεύμα (pneuma, Greek) and spiritus (Latin). [23]

Islam

People have frequently conceived of spirit as a supernatural being, or non-physical entity; for example, a demon, ghost, fairy, or angel. [2] In ancient Islamic terminology however, the term spirit ( rūḥ ), applies only to "pure" spirits, but not to other invisible creatures, such as jinn, demons and angels. [24] [ need quotation to verify ]

Psychical research

Psychical research, "In all the publications of the Society for Psychical Research the term 'spirit' stands for the personal stream of consciousness whatever else it may ultimately be proved to imply or require" (James H. Hyslop, 1919). [25]

Death

The concepts of spirit and soul often overlap, [26] and some systems propose that both survive bodily death. [27]

In some belief systems, the "spirit" may separate from the body upon death and remain in the world in the form of a ghost, i.e. a manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person.

See also

Related Research Articles

In Judaism, the Holy Spirit, otherwise known as the Holy Ghost, is the divine force, quality and influence of God over the universe or his creatures. In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as an agent of divine action or communication. In the Baha’i Faith, the Holy Spirit is seen as the intermediary between God and man and "the outpouring grace of God and the effulgent rays that emanate from His Manifestation".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Qi</span> Vital force in traditional Chinese philosophy

In traditional Chinese culture and the East Asian cultural sphere, qi or ch'i in Wade–Giles romanization or chi, is believed to be a vital force forming part of any living entity. Literally meaning "vapor", "air", or "breath", the word qi is a polysemous word often translated as "vital energy", "vital force", "material energy", or simply as "energy". Qi is a mythical concept in traditional Chinese medicine and in Chinese martial arts. The attempt to cultivate and balance qi is called qigong.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soul</span> Non-material essence of a living being

In many religious and philosophical traditions, the soul is the non-material essence of a person, which includes one's identity, personality, and memories, an immaterial aspect or essence of a living being that is believed to be able to survive physical death. The concept of the soul is generally applied to humans, though it can also be applied to other living or even non-living entities, as in animism.

In Inuit mythology, an inua is a spirit or soul that exists in all people, animals, lakes, mountains, and plants. This is not an individual soul, but rather "the vital force representing a chain or continuum of all the individual spirits of that genus which had lived, were living, or were to live."

Vitalism is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to as the "vital spark", "energy", "élan vital", "vital force", or "vis vitalis", which some equate with the soul. In the 18th and 19th centuries, vitalism was discussed among biologists, between those who felt that the known mechanics of physics would eventually explain the difference between life and non-life and vitalists who argued that the processes of life could not be reduced to a mechanistic process. Vitalist biologists such as Johannes Reinke proposed testable hypotheses meant to show inadequacies with mechanistic explanations, but their experiments failed to provide support for vitalism. Biologists now consider vitalism in this sense to have been refuted by empirical evidence, and hence regard it either as a superseded scientific theory, or, since the mid-20th century, as a pseudoscience.

In yoga, Ayurveda, and Indian martial arts, prana permeates reality on all levels including inanimate objects. In Hindu literature, prāṇa is sometimes described as originating from the Sun and connecting the elements.

The concept of an immaterial and immortal soul – distinct from the body – did not appear in Judaism before the Babylonian exile, but developed as a result of interaction with Persian and Hellenistic philosophies. Accordingly, the Hebrew word נֶ֫פֶשׁ‎, nephesh, although translated as "soul" in some older English-language Bibles, actually has a meaning closer to "living being". Nephesh was translated into Greek in the Septuagint as ψυχή (psūchê), using the Greek word for "soul". The New Testament also uses the word ψυχή, but with the Hebrew meaning and not the Greek.

The Three Treasures or Three Jewels are theoretical cornerstones in traditional Chinese medicine and practices such as neidan, qigong, and tai chi. They are also known as jing, qi, and shen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genesis 1:2</span> Second verse of the first chapter of Genesis

Genesis 1:2 is the second verse of the Genesis creation narrative. It is a part of the Torah portion Bereshit.

<i>Nafs</i> Quranic Arabic word for the "self"

Nafs (نَفْس) is an Arabic word occurring in the Quran, literally meaning "self", and has been translated as "psyche", "ego" or "soul". The term is cognate with the Hebrew word nephesh, נֶפֶשׁ. In the Quran, the word nafs is used in both the individualistic and collective sense, indicating that although humanity is united in possessing the positive qualities of a nafs, they are individually responsible for exercising the agencies of the "free will" that it provides them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vital heat</span>

Vital heat, also called innate or natural heat, or calidum innatum, is a term in Ancient Greek medicine and philosophy that has generally referred to the heat produced within the body, usually the heat produced by the heart and the circulatory system. Vital heat was a somewhat controversial subject because it was formerly believed that heat was acquired by an outside source such as the element of fire.

In Christian theology, the tripartite view (trichotomy) holds that humankind is a composite of three distinct components: body, spirit, and soul. It is in contrast to the bipartite view (dichotomy), where soul and spirit are taken as different terms for the same entity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christian anthropology</span> Study of the human (anthropos) as it relates to God

In the context of Christian theology, Christian anthropology is the study of the human (anthropos) as it relates to God. It differs from the social science of anthropology, which primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity across times and places.

In Judaism, the Holy Spirit refers to the divine force, quality, and influence of God over the universe or over God's creatures, in given contexts.

Pneuma is an ancient Greek word for "breath", and in a religious context for "spirit" or "soul". It has various technical meanings for medical writers and philosophers of classical antiquity, particularly in regard to physiology, and is also used in Greek translations of ruachרוח in the Hebrew Bible, and in the Greek New Testament.

In Christian theology, the gender of the Holy Spirit has been the subject of some debate in recent times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoic physics</span> Natural philosophy of the Stoic philosophers

Stoic physics refers to the natural philosophy of the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome which they used to explain the natural processes at work in the universe.

Nephesh is a Biblical Hebrew word which occurs in the Hebrew Bible. The word refers to the aspects of sentience, and human beings and other animals are both described as being nephesh. Bugs and plants, as examples of live organisms, are not referred in the Bible as being nephesh. The primary meaning of the term נפש‎ is 'the breath of life' instinct in the nostrils of all living beings, and by extension 'life', 'person' or 'very self'. There is no term in English corresponding to nephesh, and the (Christian) 'soul', which has quite different connotations is nonetheless customarily used to translate it. One view is that nephesh relates to sentient being without the idea of life and that, rather than having a nephesh, a sentient creation of God is a nephesh. In Genesis 2:7, the text is not that Adam was given a nephesh but that Adam "became a living nephesh." Nephesh when put with another word can detail aspects related to the concept of nephesh; with רוּחַ‎ rûach it describes a part of mankind that is immaterial, like one's mind, emotions, will, intellect, personality, and conscience, as in Job 7:11.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holy Spirit in Christianity</span> Third person of the Trinity in Christianity

For the majority of Christian denominations, the Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, is believed to be the third person of the Trinity, a triune God manifested as God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, each being God. Nontrinitarian Christians, who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, differ significantly from mainstream Christianity in their beliefs about the Holy Spirit. In Christian theology, pneumatology is the study of the Holy Spirit. Due to Christianity's historical relationship with Judaism, theologians often identify the Holy Spirit with the concept of the Ruach Hakodesh in Jewish scripture, on the theory that Jesus was expanding upon these Jewish concepts. Similar names, and ideas, include the Ruach Elohim, Ruach YHWH, and the Ruach Hakodesh. In the New Testament it is identified with the Spirit of Christ, the Spirit of Truth, the Paraclete and the Holy Spirit.

Okhêma refers to the "carrier" or "vehicle" of the soul, serving as the intermediary between the body and the soul, in Neoplatonism and the philosophical traditions it influenced.

References

  1. ↑ Burtt, Edwin A. (2003). Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 275.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 See François 2009, pp. 187–197.
  3. ↑ anə-, from *ə2enə1-. Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., p. 4. Also available online. (NB: Watkins uses ə1, ə2, ə3 as fully equivalent variants for h1, h2, h3, respectively, for the notation of Proto-Indo-European laryngeal segments.)
  4. ↑ bhes-2 (with zero grade *bhs- devoicing leading to *phs- and later ps- in Classical Greek). Watkins, Calvert. 2000. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, second edition. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 2000, p. 11. Also available online.
  5. ↑ Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W., Richardson, M. E. J., & Stamm, J. J. (1999). The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon of the Old Testament (electronic ed.) (711). Leiden; New York: E.J. Brill.
  6. ↑ Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (659). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)[ ISBN missing ]
  7. ↑ Brown, F., Driver, S. R., & Briggs, C. A. (2000). Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (electronic ed.) (924ff.). Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems. (N.B. Corresponds closely to printed editions.)[ ISBN missing ]
  8. ↑ See the Wiktionary entries for Geist and esprit .
  9. ↑ "Ruach: Spirit or Wind or ???". BiblicalHeritage.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2015.
  10. ↑ "Stoicism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . January 20, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2023.
  11. ↑ Companion Bible – KJV by E. W. Bullinger, Kregel Publications, 1999. ISBN   0825420997. p. 146.
  12. 1 2 Konsmo, Erik (2010). The Pauline Metaphors of the Holy Spirit: The Intangible Spirit's Tangible Presence in the Life of the Christian. New York: Peter Lang. p. 2. ISBN   978-1-4331-0691-0.
  13. ↑ Eddy, Mary Baker (1875). "Glossary". Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures. p. 587. Retrieved 2009-03-11. GOD – The great I AM; the all-knowing, all-seeing, all-acting, all-wise, all-loving, and eternal; Principle; Mind; Soul; Spirit; Life; Truth; Love; all substance; intelligence.
  14. ↑ Doctrine and Covenants 131:7
  15. ↑ "Abraham 5:7". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
  16. ↑ "Abraham 3:22". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
  17. ↑ "Topical Guide: Intelligence, Intelligences". www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 2020-07-14.
  18. ↑ Michels, John (January 18, 1884). Science: Volume 3. Highwire Press, Jestor: American Association for the Advancement of Science. pp. 74–75. Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] because of the improvement in philosophy [...] men began to break loose from the trammels of Greek and mediaeval metaphysics, and to realize that a process is not explained by the arbitrary assumption of some hypothetical cause invented to account for it. So long as the phenomena exhibited by living things were regarded, not as manifestations of the properties of the kind of matter of which they were composed, but as mere exhibitions of the activity of an extrinsic independent entity, a pneuma, anima, vital spirit, or vital principle which had temporarily taken up its residence in the body of an animal, but had no more essential connection with that body than a tenant with the house in which he lives, - there was no need for physiological laboratories. [...] Both Harvey and Descartes, however, still believed in a special locally placed vital spirit or vital force, which animated the whole bodily frame as the engine in a great factory moves all the machinery in it.
  19. ↑ Miles, Leroyce (7 August 2018). "Spirit". Introduction to the Study of Religion. Waltham Abbey, Essex: Scientific e-ResourcesED-Tech Press (published 2018). p. 98. ISBN   978-1839473630 . Retrieved 6 December 2021. Various forms of animism, such as Japan's Shinto and African traditional religion, focus on invisible beings that represent or connect with plants, animals (sometimes called 'Animal Fathers'), or landforms (kami): translators usually employ the English word "spirit" when trying to express the idea of such entities.
  20. ↑ Legge, James (2010). The Analects of Confucius. Auckland: Floating Press. ISBN   978-1775417958.
  21. ↑ Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN   0-415-94180-6.
  22. ↑ Salamone, Frank A. (2004). Levinson, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. New York: Routledge. p. 225. ISBN   0-415-94180-6.
  23. ↑ Jung, C. G. (1960). "Spirit and Life". In Hull, R. F. C. (ed.). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. XX. Vol. 8. New York: Pantheon Books for Bollinger. pp. 319–320.[ ISBN missing ]
  24. ↑ Chodkiewicz, M., “Rūḥāniyya”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 18 November 2019 doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6323 First published online: 2010
  25. ↑ Hyslop, James Hervey (1919). Contact with the Other World (First ed.). New York: The Century Co. p.  11.
  26. ↑ OED: "spirit 2.a.: The soul of a person, as commended to God, or passing out of the body, in the moment of death."
  27. ↑ For example: Sill, Ernest R. (September 1996) [1897]. What Happens at Death and What Is Our Condition After Death? (3 ed.). Pomeroy, Washington: Health Research Books (published 1996). p. 16. ISBN   978-0787307929 . Retrieved 24 November 2021. [...] the spirit and soul which occupied and used the body have withdrawn from it. [...] Soul and spirit both survive death.

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