Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (after 1952)

Last updated

The evolution of tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the continental drift and plate tectonics hypotheses. The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen isostasy hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.

Contents

The idea of continents with a permanent location, the geosyncline theory, the Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the extrapolation of the age of the Earth by Lord Kelvin as a black body cooling down, the contracting Earth, the Earth as a solid and crystalline body, is one school of thought. A lithosphere creeping over the asthenosphere is a logical consequence of an Earth with internal heat by radioactivity decay, the Airy-Heiskanen isostasy, thrust faults and Niskanen's mantle viscosity determinations.

Making sense of the puzzle pieces

Map of the later North Atlantic region after the closing of the Iapetus Ocean and the Caledonian/Acadian orogenies (Wilson 1966). Animals: Trilobites and graptolites. Iapetus fossil evidence EN.svg
Map of the later North Atlantic region after the closing of the Iapetus Ocean and the Caledonian/Acadian orogenies ( Wilson 1966 ). Animals: Trilobites and graptolites.
Euramerica in the Devonian (416 to 359 Ma) with Baltica, Avalonia (Cabot Fault, Newfoundland and Great Glen Fault, Scotland; cited in Wilson 1962) and Laurentia (Other parts: Iberian Massif and Armorican terrane). Caledonides EN.svg
Euramerica in the Devonian (416 to 359 Ma) with Baltica, Avalonia (Cabot Fault, Newfoundland and Great Glen Fault, Scotland; cited in Wilson 1962) and Laurentia (Other parts: Iberian Massif and Armorican terrane).

Plate tectonics

The "Bullard's Fit" of the Iapetus Ocean suture zone. Pangaa.jpg
The "Bullard's Fit" of the Iapetus Ocean suture zone.
Approximate location of Mesoproterozoic (older than 1.3 Ga) cratons in South America and Africa. The Sao Luis and the Luis Alves cratonic fragments are shown (Brazil), but the Arequipa-Antofalla craton, the Saharan Metacraton and some minor African cratons are not. Other versions describe the Guiana Shield separated from the Amazonian shield by a depression. Cratons West Gondwana.svg
Approximate location of Mesoproterozoic (older than 1.3 Ga) cratons in South America and Africa. The São Luís and the Luis Alves cratonic fragments are shown (Brazil), but the Arequipa–Antofalla craton, the Saharan Metacraton and some minor African cratons are not. Other versions describe the Guiana Shield separated from the Amazonian shield by a depression.

Geodynamics

Euler rotational pole. Eulerpol.svg
Euler rotational pole.
Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge (the image has a flaw though, the seafloor gets thicker with age). Ridge render.jpg
Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge (the image has a flaw though, the seafloor gets thicker with age).
Approximate world distribution of living Cycadales Cycads world distribution.png
     Approximate world distribution of living Cycadales
A distribution map of Gnetophyta colour-coded by genus:
Green - Welwitschia
Blue - Gnetum
Red - Ephedra
Purple - Gnetum and Ephedra range overlap Gnetophyta distribution genera separate.PNG
A distribution map of Gnetophyta colour-coded by genus:
Green – Welwitschia
Blue – Gnetum
Red – Ephedra
Purple – Gnetum and Ephedra range overlap

Overview

Many concepts had to be changed:

The shifting and evolution of knowledge and concepts, were from:

Profile of the East Swiss Alps (1880, from Northeast to Southwest) by Albert Heim, before he accepted the theory of thrusting. Key: #a Gneiss, schist and so on, #b Jura, #c Cretaceous and #d Eocene; Walensee, Schaechental, Windgaelle and Finsteraarhorn. Profil-Nordafall-Alpen.jpg
Profile of the East Swiss Alps (1880, from Northeast to Southwest) by Albert Heim, before he accepted the theory of thrusting. Key: #a Gneiss, schist and so on, #b Jura, #c Cretaceous and #d Eocene; Walensee, Schaechental, Windgaelle and Finsteraarhorn.

Actually, there were two main "schools of thought" that pushed plate tectonics forward:

Wegener's continental drift hypotheses is a logical consequence of: the theory of thrusting (alpine geology), the isostasy, the continents forms resulting from the supercontinent Gondwana break up, the past and present-day life forms on both sides of the Gondwana continent margins, and the Permo-Carboniferous moraine deposits in South Gondwana.

Graphics

Plate tectonics map, Digital Tectonic Activity Map Plate tectonics map.gif
Plate tectonics map, Digital Tectonic Activity Map
Global plate tectonic movement Global plate motion 2008-04-17.jpg
Global plate tectonic movement

See also

Related Research Articles

Continental drift is the theory, originating in the early 20th century, that Earth's continents move or drift relative to each other over geologic time. The theory of continental drift has since been validated and incorporated into the science of plate tectonics, which studies the movement of the continents as they ride on plates of the Earth's lithosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plate tectonics</span> Movement of Earths lithosphere

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic trench</span> Long and narrow depressions of the sea floor

Oceanic trenches are prominent, long, narrow topographic depressions of the ocean floor. They are typically 50 to 100 kilometers wide and 3 to 4 km below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor, but can be thousands of kilometers in length. There are about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) of oceanic trenches worldwide, mostly around the Pacific Ocean, but also in the eastern Indian Ocean and a few other locations. The greatest ocean depth measured is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,994 m (36,070 ft) below sea level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seafloor spreading</span> Geological process at mid-ocean ridges

Seafloor spreading, or seafloor spread, is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subduction</span> A geological process at convergent tectonic plate boundaries where one plate moves under the other

Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at the convergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Where one tectonic plate converges with a second plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the other and sinks into the mantle. A region where this process occurs is known as a subduction zone, and its surface expression is known as an arc-trench complex. The process of subduction has created most of the Earth's continental crust. Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with rates of convergence as high as 11 cm/year.

Isostasy or isostatic equilibrium is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle, it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere, particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Divergent boundary</span> Linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other

In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Convergent boundary</span> Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates

A convergent boundary is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Harry Hammond Hess</span> American geologist (1906–1969)

Harry Hammond Hess was an American geologist and a United States Navy officer in World War II who is considered one of the "founding fathers" of the unifying theory of plate tectonics. He published theories on sea floor spreading, specifically on relationships between island arcs, seafloor gravity anomalies, and serpentinized peridotite, suggesting that the convection in the Earth's mantle is the driving force behind this process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic crust</span> Uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate

Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of the tectonic plates. It is composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumulates. The crust overlies the rigid uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the rigid upper mantle layer together constitute oceanic lithosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mid-ocean ridge</span> Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading

A mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is a seafloor mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It typically has a depth of about 2,600 meters (8,500 ft) and rises about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) above the deepest portion of an ocean basin. This feature is where seafloor spreading takes place along a divergent plate boundary. The rate of seafloor spreading determines the morphology of the crest of the mid-ocean ridge and its width in an ocean basin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercontinent cycle</span> Repeated joining and separation of Earths continents

The supercontinent cycle is the quasi-periodic aggregation and dispersal of Earth's continental crust. There are varying opinions as to whether the amount of continental crust is increasing, decreasing, or staying about the same, but it is agreed that the Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured. One complete supercontinent cycle is said to take 300 to 500 million years. Continental collision makes fewer and larger continents while rifting makes more and smaller continents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">W. Jason Morgan</span> American geophysicist (1935–2023)

William Jason Morgan was an American geophysicist who made seminal contributions to the theory of plate tectonics and geodynamics. He retired as the Knox Taylor Professor emeritus of geology and professor of geosciences at Princeton University. He served as a visiting scholar in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University until his death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Expanding Earth</span> Historic theory in geology

The expanding Earth or growing Earth was a hypothesis attempting to explain the position and relative movement of continents by increase in the volume of Earth. With the recognition of plate tectonics in 20th century, the idea has been abandoned.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</span> Concept in plate tectonics

The Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis, also known as the Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis, was the first key scientific test of the seafloor spreading theory of continental drift and plate tectonics. Its key impact was that it allowed the rates of plate motions at mid-ocean ridges to be computed. It states that the Earth's oceanic crust acts as a recorder of reversals in the geomagnetic field direction as seafloor spreading takes place.

The evolution of tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the continental drift and plate tectonics hypotheses. The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen isostasy hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.

The Plate Tectonics Revolution was the scientific and cultural change which developed from the acceptance of the plate tectonics theory. The event was a paradigm shift and scientific revolution.

Ridge push is a proposed driving force for plate motion in plate tectonics that occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the result of the rigid lithosphere sliding down the hot, raised asthenosphere below mid-ocean ridges. Although it is called ridge push, the term is somewhat misleading; it is actually a body force that acts throughout an ocean plate, not just at the ridge, as a result of gravitational pull. The name comes from earlier models of plate tectonics in which ridge push was primarily ascribed to upwelling magma at mid-ocean ridges pushing or wedging the plates apart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plate theory (volcanism)</span> Model of volcanic activities on Earth

The plate theory is a model of volcanism that attributes all volcanic activity on Earth, even that which appears superficially to be anomalous, to the operation of plate tectonics. According to the plate theory, the principal cause of volcanism is extension of the lithosphere. Extension of the lithosphere is a function of the lithospheric stress field. The global distribution of volcanic activity at a given time reflects the contemporaneous lithospheric stress field, and changes in the spatial and temporal distribution of volcanoes reflect changes in the stress field. The main factors governing the evolution of the stress field are:

  1. Changes in the configuration of plate boundaries.
  2. Vertical motions.
  3. Thermal contraction.
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine geophysics</span>

Marine geophysics is the scientific discipline that employs methods of geophysics to study the world's ocean basins and continental margins, particularly the solid earth beneath the ocean. It shares objectives with marine geology, which uses sedimentological, paleontological, and geochemical methods. Marine geophysical data analyses led to the theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics.

References

Notes

  1. Windley 1996.
  2. Ziegler 1990.
  3. Hurley et al. 1966.
  4. Hurley et al. 1967.
  5. McPhee 1998.
  6. Bill Bonini; Laurie Wanat, eds. (Fall 2003). "Jason Morgan Retires" (PDF). The Smilodon: The Princeton Geosciences Newsletter. 44 (2). Fortuitously, he was assigned as well an office that he shared for two years with Fred Vine,... This insight was fundamental to the revolutionary theory then developing, and sharing that office with Fred Vine drew Morgan into the subject — as he puts it — "with a bang." A paper written by H.W. Menard caused him to begin musing on his own about great faults and fracture zones, and how they might relate to theorems on the geometry of spheres Passages about W. Jason Morgan from McPhee, John (1998) Annals of the Former World, New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux.
  7. Poinar GO, Danforth BN (October 2006). "A fossil bee from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber" (PDF). Science. 314 (5799): 614. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.627.551 . doi:10.1126/science.1134103. PMID   17068254. S2CID   28047407. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-04.
  8. Dave Mosher (December 26, 2007). "Modern beetles predate dinosaurs". Live Science . Retrieved June 24, 2010.
  9. Wiegmann, Brian M.; Trautwein, Michelle D.; Winkler, Isaac S.; Barr, Norman B.; Kim, Jung-Wook; Lambkin, Christine; Bertone, Matthew A.; Cassel; Bayless, Brian K.; Heimberg, Alysha M.; Wheeler, Benjamin M.; Peterson, Kevin J.; Pape, Thomas; Sinclair, Bradley J.; Skevington, Jeffrey H.; Blagoderov, Vladimir; Caravas, Jason; Kutty, Sujatha Narayanan; Schmidt-Ott, Urs; Kampmeier, Gail E.; Thompson, F. Christian; Grimaldi, David A.; Beckenbach, Andrew T.; Courtney, Gregory W.; Friedrich, Markus; Meier, Rudolf; Yeates, David K. (2011). "Episodic radiations in the fly tree of life". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 108 (14): 5690–5695. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.5690W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1012675108 . PMC   3078341 . PMID   21402926.
  10. Araki et al. 2005.
  11. Scotese, Christopher. "The Paleomap Project".
  12. 1 2 "Center for Geodynamics, Geological Survey of Norway".
  13. 1 2 "EarthByte Group, University of Sydney". Archived from the original on 2012-06-28.
  14. The Digital Tectonic Activity Map (DTAM) was produced by Paul Lowman and colleagues at NASA GSFC, 1998.
  15. NASA/JPL Archived 2011-07-21 at the Wayback Machine , courtesy of Michael B. Heflin, 2007.9. See Bird (2003) and Dr. Ron Blakey Archived 2012-08-07 at the Wayback Machine , Northern Arizona University.

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Cited articles

Further reading