1983 Atlantic hurricane season

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1983 Atlantic hurricane season
1983 Atlantic hurricane season summary map.png
Season summary map
Seasonal boundaries
First system formedJuly 23, 1983
Last system dissipatedSeptember 30, 1983
Strongest storm
Name Alicia
 • Maximum winds115 mph (185 km/h)
(1-minute sustained)
 • Lowest pressure962 mbar (hPa; 28.41 inHg)
Seasonal statistics
Total depressions7
Total storms4 (Record low in the satellite era)
Hurricanes3
Major hurricanes
(Cat. 3+)		1
Total fatalities21 total
Total damage$3 billion (1983 USD)
Related articles
Atlantic hurricane seasons
1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985

The 1983 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season in the satellite era and the least active overall since 1930. The season officially began on June 1, 1983, and lasted until November 30, 1983. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most storms form in the Atlantic basin. The season had very little activity, with only seven tropical depressions, four of which reached tropical storm strength or higher. This led to the lowest accumulated cyclone energy count since 1977.

Contents

The season began later than normal; the first tropical depression formed on July 23 and the second on July 27. Neither tropical depressions strengthened and they dissipated soon thereafter. Hurricane Alicia formed as Tropical Depression Three on August 15, quickly intensified into a hurricane on August 16 and made landfall in Texas on August 18. Alicia caused $3 billion in damage in Texas. Hurricane Barry formed on August 25, crossed Florida and strengthened into a hurricane. Barry made landfall near the Mexico–United States border, and dissipated over land on August 30.

Hurricane Chantal, the third and final hurricane in 1983, formed on September 10. It strengthened into a hurricane, but stayed out at sea, and was absorbed by a frontal system on September 15. Tropical Depression Six formed on September 18 and caused heavy rains in the Caribbean before degenerating into a wave on September 20. Tropical Storm Dean was the final storm of the season, forming on September 26. It originally tracked to the north, peaking at 65 mph (105 km/h) winds, and made landfall in the Delmarva Peninsula on September 29. It dissipated over the coast of Virginia on the following day.

Seasonal forecasts

Predictions of tropical activity in the 1983 season
SourceDateNamed
storms		HurricanesMajor
hurricanes		Ref
Average (1981–2010)12.16.42.7 [1]
Record high activity 30 15 7† [2]
Record low activity 1 0† 0† [2]
CSU July 23, 198385N/A [3]
Actual activity
431
† Most recent of several such occurrences. (See all)

Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts such as Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU). [3] A normal season, as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the period from 1981 to 2010, has approximately 12 named storms, with 6 of those reaching hurricane status. About 3 hurricane strengthen into major hurricanes, which are tropical cyclones that reach at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir–Simpson scale. [1]

The July 23, 1983, forecasters at CSU predicted that after the slow start to the season, a total of eight tropical storms would develop, and five of the storms would reach hurricane status. The forecast did not specify how many of the hurricanes would reach major hurricane status. CSU based this prediction on an ongoing El Niño event, sea-level pressures, and wind currents. [3] However, the prediction issued by CSU proved to be too high, with only four named storms forming by the end of the season and three of those reaching hurricane status. [4] The CSU attributed the overforecast to the El Niño event being stronger and more persistent than they expected. [5]

Seasonal summary

Tropical Storm Dean (1983)Hurricane Barry (1983)Hurricane AliciaSaffir-Simpson scale1983 Atlantic hurricane season
Least intense Atlantic
hurricane seasons
(since 1965)
RankSeason ACE value
1 1983 17.4
2 1977 25.3
3 1982 31.5
4 1994 32.0
5 1987 34.4
6 1991 35.5
7 1972 35.6
8 1986 35.8
9 2013 36.1
10 1993 38.7
(source)

The season, which began on June 1 and ended on November 30, [6] was very inactive because of strong upper-level wind shear. The wind shear was unusually strong throughout the Caribbean and open Atlantic, and disrupted convection in areas of disturbed weather so they could not develop. Over 60 African systems had formed and made it westward, but when they reached the Lesser Antilles, they were dissolved easily. The only area where the shear was minimal—a region encompassing the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic north of the Bahamas and east of Florida—was where the four named storms developed. Another contributing factor to the low number of storms may have been the decaying 1982–83 El Niño event. The season total of four named storms was the fewest in the satellite era, while the 1983 season was the least active since 1930, which had only three storms. This season and the previous became the first example of two consecutive years to have no storms form in the Caribbean since reliable record began. Additionally, the 1983 season was the first on record in which a system did not reach tropical storm intensity south of 25°N latitude. [4]

The National Hurricane Center also issued numeric landfall probabilities for the first time in 1983. Probabilities had been calculated for prior storms for use in the issuing of hurricane watches and warnings, but this was the first time the raw numeric probabilities were released to the public. [4] The probabilities issued were accurate during Alicia, indicating that Galveston and surrounding portions of the upper Texas coast were the most likely area to be struck. [7]

Tropical cyclogenesis began on July 23, when Tropical Depression One formed over the deep Atlantic. After crossing the Windward Islands, the depression dissipated over the eastern Caribbean on July 28. As the previous system moved across the Caribbean, another depression formed on July 27 to the southwest of the Cape Verde Islands. The depression traversed the Atlantic in a west-northwestward direction and also failed to reach tropical storm intensity before dissipating near the northern Leeward Islands on August 2. Later in August, hurricanes Alicia and Barry developed. The former also became the most intense tropical cyclone of the season, peaking as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). [8] Alicia caused 21 fatalities and approximately $3 billion in damage, mostly in Texas. [9] [10] Three tropical cyclones formed in September – Hurricane Chantal, Tropical Depression Six, and Tropical Storm Dean. The dissipation of Dean on September 30 marked the end of tropical cyclone activity. [8]

The season's activity was reflected with a very low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 17, one of the lowest on record, [11] which is classified as "below normal". [12] ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. [11]

Systems

Tropical Depression One

Tropical depression (SSHWS)
Tropical Depression 1 (1983).jpg   01L 1983 track.png
DurationJuly 23 – July 28
Peak intensity35 mph (55 km/h) (1-min);

Tropical Depression One developed about halfway between French Guiana and the Cape Verde Islands on July 23. [8] The National Hurricane Center indicated the possibility of the depression strengthening into a tropical storm in media reports, but upper-level wind shear inhibited any development. [4] [13] The depression dissipated over the eastern Caribbean late on July 28. [8]

Tropical Depression Two

Tropical depression (SSHWS)
02L 1983-07-30 1501Z.jpg   02L 1983 track.png
DurationJuly 27 – August 2
Peak intensity35 mph (55 km/h) (1-min);

An area of disturbed weather organized into a tropical depression southwest of the Cape Verde Islands on July 27. [8] [14] The depression moved generally west-northwestward across the deep Atlantic for several days, [8] but failed to strengthened significantly due to strong upper-level wind shear. [15] The depression dissipated near the northern Leeward Islands on August 2. [8]

Hurricane Alicia

Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS)
Alicia 1983-08-17 2330Z.png   Alicia 1983 track.png
DurationAugust 15 – August 20
Peak intensity115 mph (185 km/h) (1-min);
962  mbar  (hPa)

The system that would become Hurricane Alicia originated from the western end of a frontal trough that stretched from New England to the Gulf of Mexico. [9] Satellite pictures showed a meso-scale low-pressure area that had moved off the Alabama and Mississippi coasts near the trough and was possibly the precursor system to Alicia. Pressures in the Gulf of Mexico were high and stayed high during the early development stages. On August 15, a ship recorded a minimal pressure of 1015  millibars (29.99  inHg), when the system was upgraded into Tropical Storm Alicia. With high environmental pressures around it, Alicia remained a small system. [9]

Steering currents above Alicia remained weak during the storm's lifetime. [9] However, a ridge was well formed to the north of the developing storms. With fluctuations in the pressures, Alicia began to drift to west on August 16. This was short-lived, as Alicia turned to the northwest towards Texas. During the period of August 16 to August 18, an anticyclone had formed over Alicia and along with slow movement over warm waters, caused Alicia to intensify rapidly. The pressure in Alicia decreased one millibar an hour in the 40 hours before landfall. Alicia peaked at 115 mph (185 km/h) in winds and 962 millibars (28.4 inHg) in pressure on August 18. Alicia made landfall near Galveston on August 18 as a Category 3 hurricane. Alicia weakened quickly over land and accelerated over the Midwest, before dissipating over Nebraska on August 21. [9]

As Alicia moved northward, the remnants caused moderate to heavy rainfall in several states. [16] Houston suffered heavy damage, including thousands of shattered glass panes from downtown skyscrapers. Overall, Alicia killed 21 people and caused $3 billion (1983 USD) in damage. [16] [17] [10]

Hurricane Barry

Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS)
Barry 1983-08-28 1800Z.png   Barry 1983 track.png
DurationAugust 23 – August 29
Peak intensity80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min);
986  mbar  (hPa)

Hurricane Barry originated from a tropical disturbance that left the Northwestern African coast on August 13. [18] Most of the season, the northwestern tropical Atlantic Ocean had upper-level wind shear, which had inhibited development of systems. Due to these conditions, the disturbance was unable to strengthen until August 22 as it was approaching the Bahamas. A weak trough moved the disturbance into an area of low wind shear, and the disturbance intensified into Tropical Depression Four on the evening of August 23. The depression was just to the northeast of the northern Bahamian Islands where it strengthened into Tropical Storm Barry on the morning of August 24. [18]

Tropical Storm Barry subsequently turned to the west into an area of increased wind shear and weakened rapidly. [18] It was able to make landfall near Melbourne, Florida, on the morning of August 25 as a 45 mph tropical storm, before weakening to a tropical depression over Florida. After Tropical Depression Barry emerged from central Florida, it was still under pressure from high-level winds. The depression entered the central Gulf of Mexico, and after meandering west for a day or so, returned to tropical storm strength. Just off the coast of Mexico, Barry rapidly intensified into a hurricane on August 28, just before making landfall near Matamoros that afternoon. Before landfall, Barry peaked with 80 mph (130 km/h) winds and a pressure of 986  millibars (29.11  inHg). The remnants quickly dissipated over the Sierra Madre Oriental on August 29. [18]

Hurricane Chantal

Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS)
Chantal 1983-09-11 2000Z.png   Chantal 1983 track.png
DurationSeptember 10 – September 15
Peak intensity75 mph (120 km/h) (1-min);
994  mbar  (hPa)

The precursor low to Chantal originated from a large envelope of low pressure on the morning of September 10. [19] The disturbed weather, nested off the coast of Bermuda, was one of the remnants of an old frontal trough that had extended from Hispaniola to the central north Atlantic Ocean. This particular area of disturbed weather become part of the northeast portion of a low-pressure system. On September 10, a reconnaissance aircraft found sustained winds of 30 mph (50 km/h) and a 1010  millibar (29.83  inHg) pressure reading, indicating development into a tropical depression. [19]

The depression moved to within 100 miles (160 kilometers) of Bermuda and slowly intensified. [19] Late that afternoon, Tropical Depression Five had intensified into a 40 mph (65 km/h) storm and was named Chantal. Chantal intensified rapidly, intensifying to hurricane status late on September 11. It then turned to the east and gained a weak upper-level cirrus-cloud outflow. The structure of the system changed little over the next 24 hours, before Chantal lost organization and was downgraded to a tropical storm on the night of the 12th. [19]

Overnight, all convection in Chantal dissipated, and its forward speed decreased as it headed north. [19] A frontal system attracted and absorbed the remnants of Chantal by the night of September 14. Effects on Bermuda were minimal, with the island getting winds only up to 20 mph (30 km/h) and a few thundershowers. [19] However, Chantal generated swells of 30–40 ft (9.1–12.2 m) offshore. [20]

Tropical Depression Six

Tropical depression (SSHWS)
06L 1983-09-19 1601Z.jpg   06L 1983 track.png
DurationSeptember 18 – September 20
Peak intensity35 mph (55 km/h) (1-min);

Tropical Depression Six formed on September 18 from a tropical wave. [8] [21] The depression caused heavy rainfall in the Lesser Antilles, [21] before degenerating into an open tropical wave on September 20 near the Dominican Republic. [8] [22]

Tropical Storm Dean

Tropical storm (SSHWS)
Dean 1983-09-29 1401Z.png   Dean 1983 track.png
DurationSeptember 26 – September 30
Peak intensity65 mph (100 km/h) (1-min);
999  mbar  (hPa)

A frontal cloud band moved off the East Coast of the United States on September 22. [23] During the next few days, the band became stationary from the Bahamas to beyond Bermuda. A high-pressure area then settled over the northeastern United States, resulting in a strong pressure gradient and winds near gale-force along the east coast. [23] A low-level circulation formed from the frontal cloud band on September 26 about 460 mi (740 km) east of central Florida. [23] Dean was first identified late on September 26 as a subtropical storm, though an Air Force reconnaissance flight on the following day only reported winds of 35 mph (55 km/h) at 23 mi (37 km) from the center. A pressure of 999 mbar (29.5 inHg) indicated that Dean was strengthening as it headed northward. Additionally, satellite pictures showed that the subtropical cyclone was emerging from the cloud. Consequently, the system became a tropical storm late on September 27. [23] Dean's winds peaked at 65 mph (105 km/h) on September 28 as it headed northward. [23] Dean's circulation turned to the northwest on September 29 then struck the Delmarva Peninsula and dissipated over land on September 30. [23]

Gale warnings were from North Carolina to Rhode Island in association with Dean. [24] Rainfall produced by the storm spread from the North Carolina – Virginia state line all the way to New England. Virginia reported rains of 1 in (25 mm) with 3 in (76 mm) at the border. [25] Rains peaked at 4.62 in (117 mm) at Cockaponset Ranger Station in Connecticut. [25] Damage was limited to minor beach erosion and flooding along the portion of Mid-Atlantic coast states. [23]

Storm names

The following list of names was used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1983. [26] [27] Each name used this season was utilized for the first (and, in the case of Alicia, only) time.

  • Alicia
  • Barry
  • Chantal
  • Dean
  • Erin (unused)
  • Felix (unused)
  • Gabrielle (unused)
  • Hugo (unused)
  • Iris (unused)
  • Jerry (unused)
  • Karen (unused)
  • Luis (unused)
  • Marilyn (unused)
  • Noel (unused)
  • Opal (unused)
  • Pablo (unused)
  • Roxanne (unused)
  • Sebastien (unused)
  • Tanya (unused)
  • Van (unused)
  • Wendy (unused)

Retirement

In the spring of 1984, the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Alicia from the rotating name lists due to the amount of damage and deaths it caused, and it will not be used again for another Atlantic hurricane. [28] Alicia was replaced with Allison for the 1989 season. [29]

Season effects

This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1983 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their name, duration, peak classification and intensities, areas affected, damage, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect (an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident), but were still related to that storm. Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical, a wave, or a low, and all of the damage figures are in 1983 USD.

Saffir–Simpson scale
TDTSC1C2C3C4C5
NameDatesPeak intensityAreas affectedDamage
(USD)		DeathsRefs
Category Wind speedPressure
OneJuly 23–28Tropical depression35 mph (55 km/h)Not specifiedNoneNoneNone
TwoJuly 27 – August 2Tropical depression35 mph (55 km/h)Not specifiedNoneNoneNone
Alicia August 15–20Category 3 hurricane115 mph (185 km/h)962 hPa (28.41 inHg) Eastern Texas, Central United States $3 billion21 [17] [30] [10]
Barry August 23–29Category 1 hurricane80 mph (130 km/h)986 hPa (29.12 inHg) Florida, United States Gulf Coast, Mexico MinorNone
ChantalSeptember 10–15Category 1 hurricane75 mph (120 km/h)994 hPa (29.35 inHg)BermudaNoneNone
SixSeptember 19–21Tropical depression35 mph (55 km/h)Not specifiedNoneNoneNone
Dean September 26–30Tropical storm65 mph (105 km/h)999 hPa (29.50 inHg) Mid-Atlantic, New England, North Carolina, Virginia MinorNone
Season aggregates
7 systemsJuly 23 – September 30115 mph (185 km/h)962 hPa (28.41 inHg)$3 billion21

See also

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The 2013 Atlantic hurricane season was a well below average Atlantic hurricane season in terms of the number of hurricanes. It was the first since 1994 with no major hurricanes, Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale, and the first in the satellite era where no hurricanes reached Category 2 strength. Altogether, the season produced 15 tropical cyclones, of which all but one became a named storm. The season officially began on June 1, 2013, and ended on November 30, 2013. These dates historically describe the period in each year when most tropical cyclogenesis occurs in the North Atlantic and are adopted by convention. The first storm of the season, Andrea, developed on June 5, while the last, an unnamed subtropical storm, dissipated on December 7. Throughout the year, only two storms, Humberto and Ingrid, reached hurricane strength; this was the lowest seasonal total since 1982.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2020 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 2020 Atlantic hurricane season was the most active Atlantic hurricane season on record, in terms of number of systems. It featured a total of 31 tropical or subtropical cyclones, with all but one cyclone becoming a named storm. Of the 30 named storms, 14 developed into hurricanes, and a record-tying seven further intensified into major hurricanes. It was the second and final season to use the Greek letter storm naming system, the first being 2005, the previous record. Of the 30 named storms, 11 of them made landfall in the contiguous United States, breaking the record of nine set in 1916. During the season, 27 tropical storms established a new record for earliest formation date by storm number. This season also featured a record ten tropical cyclones that underwent rapid intensification, tying it with 1995, as well as tying the record for most Category 4 hurricanes in a singular season in the Atlantic Basin. This unprecedented activity was fueled by a La Niña that developed in the summer months of 2020, continuing a stretch of above-average seasonal activity that began in 2016. Despite the record-high activity, this was the first season since 2015 in which no Category 5 hurricanes formed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Atlantic hurricane season</span>

The 2021 Atlantic hurricane season was the third-most active Atlantic hurricane season on record in terms of number of tropical cyclones, although many of them were weak and short-lived. With 21 named storms forming, it became the second season in a row and third overall in which the designated 21-name list of storm names was exhausted. Seven of those storms strengthened into a hurricane, four of which reached major hurricane intensity, which is slightly above-average. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30. These dates historically describe the period in each year when most Atlantic tropical cyclones form. However, subtropical or tropical cyclogenesis is possible at any time of the year, as demonstrated by the development of Tropical Storm Ana on May 22, making this the seventh consecutive year in which a storm developed outside of the official season.

References

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  2. 1 2 "North Atlantic Ocean Historical Tropical Cyclone Statistics". Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado State University. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved July 18, 2023.
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  5. ↑ William M. Gray (May 24, 1984). "Forecast of Atlantic Seasonal Hurricane Activity for 1984" (PDF). Colorado State University. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 15, 2021. Retrieved August 29, 2021.
  6. ↑ Albert Sehlstedt Jr. (October 1, 1983). "Apathy in the face of a killer storm is a major concern". The Baltimore Sun. p. B2. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  7. ↑ National Hurricane Center (1983). "Hurricane Alicia Preliminary Report Page 3". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
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  9. 1 2 3 4 5 National Hurricane Center (1983). "Hurricane Alicia Preliminary Report Page 1". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
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  12. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (May 27, 2010). "Background information: the North Atlantic Hurricane Season". Climate Prediction Center. Archived from the original on May 10, 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2011.
  13. ↑ "First Tropical Depression Weakens, Second Tropical Depression Forming". The Noblesville Ledger. United Press International. July 29, 1983. p. 2. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  14. ↑ Liz Balmaseda (July 31, 1983). "Depression has good chance of being first tropical storm". Miami Herald. p. 2A. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  15. ↑ "2nd tropical depression withers". Miami Herald. August 3, 1983. p. 2A. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  16. 1 2 David Roth (2007). "Tropical Cyclone Rainfall: Hurricane Alicia". Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Archived from the original on September 22, 2013. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  17. 1 2 "Hurricane Alicia: Prediction, Damage & Recovery Efforts" (PDF). Subcommittee on Natural Resources, Agriculture Research and Environment. 1983. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 15, 2012. Retrieved May 5, 2011.
  18. 1 2 3 4 National Hurricane Center (1983). "Hurricane Barry Preliminary Report". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 19, 2012. Retrieved December 23, 2007.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 National Hurricane Center (1983). "Hurricane Chantal Preliminary Report". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  20. ↑ "Hurricane Chantal bypasses Bermuda". The Philadelphia Inquirer. United Press International. September 12, 1983. p. 3-A. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  21. 1 2 "New tropical depression forms aims toward Windwards". Miami Herald. September 19, 1983. p. 3A. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  22. ↑ "Caribbean storm downgraded". Miami Herald. September 21, 1983. p. 2A. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 27, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Miles B. Lawrence (October 14, 1983). "Tropical Storm Dean Preliminary Report". National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on October 2, 2015. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
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  25. 1 2 David Roth (2007). "Tropical Cyclone Rainfall: Tropical Storm Dean". Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Archived from the original on February 16, 2015. Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  26. ↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. May 1983. p. 3-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 12, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  27. ↑ "Alicia first: When will Barry come?". Asbury Park Press. Asbury Park, New Jersey. August 21, 1983. p. C1. Archived from the original on December 2, 2022. Retrieved April 5, 2021– via Newspapers.com. Lock-green.svg
  28. ↑ "Tropical Cyclone Naming History and Retired Names". Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Archived from the original on June 27, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  29. ↑ National Hurricane Operations Plan (PDF) (Report). Washington, D.C.: NOAA Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. April 1989. p. 3-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  30. ↑ Robert A. Case; Harold P. Gerrish (May 1, 1984). "Atlantic Hurricane Season of 1983". Monthly Weather Review. 112 (5). American Meteorological Society: 1083–1092. Bibcode:1984MWRv..112.1083C. doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(1984)112<1083:AHSO>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN   1520-0493. Archived from the original on September 28, 2021. Retrieved September 28, 2021.

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