African penguin

Last updated

African penguin
African penguin side profile.jpg
At Boulders Beach in Simon’s Town, South Africa
CITES Appendix II (CITES) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Sphenisciformes
Family: Spheniscidae
Genus: Spheniscus
Species:
S. demersus
Binomial name
Spheniscus demersus
African penguin
  Extant (resident)
  Extant at-sea range (resident)
African penguin distribution en.jpg
Distribution of the African penguin
Synonyms

Diomedea demersaLinnaeus, 1758

The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), also known as Cape penguin or South African penguin, is a species of penguin confined to southern African waters. Like all penguins, it is flightless, with a streamlined body and wings stiffened and flattened into flippers for a marine habitat. Adults weigh an average of 2.2–3.5 kg (4.9–7.7 lb) and are 60–70 cm (24–28 in) tall. The species has distinctive pink patches of skin above the eyes and a black facial mask. The body's upper parts are black and sharply delineated from the white underparts, which are spotted and marked with a black band.

Contents

The African penguin is a pursuit diver and feeds primarily on fish and squid. Once extremely numerous, the African penguin is declining rapidly due to a combination of several threats and is classified as endangered. It is a charismatic species and is popular with tourists. Other vernacular names of the species include black-footed penguin and jackass penguin, due to the species' loud, donkey-like noise [3] (although several related species of South American penguins produce the same sound). They can be found along the coast of South Africa and Namibia.

Taxonomy

In 1747, the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the African penguin in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "The Black-Footed Penguins". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on two preserved specimens that had been brought to London. He suspected that they had been collected near the Cape of Good Hope. [4] When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the African penguin with the wandering albatross in the genus Diomedea . Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Diomedea demersa and cited Edwards' work. [5] The African penguin is now placed with the banded penguins in the genus Spheniscus that was introduced in 1760 by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson. [6] [7] The genus name Spheniscus is from Ancient Greek word σφήν (sphēn) meaning "wedge" and is a reference to the animal's thin, wedge-shaped flippers. The specific epithet demersus is Latin meaning "plunging" (from demergere meaning "to sink"). [8]

Banded penguins are found mainly in the Southern Hemisphere with the Humboldt penguin and Magellanic penguins found in southern South America and the Galápagos penguin found in the Pacific Ocean near the equator. All are similar in shape, colour and behaviour.

Penguin colony at Betty's Bay

Description

African penguin diving in Siam Center, Bangkok, Thailand Spheniscus demersus 01.JPG
African penguin diving in Siam Center, Bangkok, Thailand
African penguin skeleton at the Museum of Osteology in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA African Penguin Skeleton.jpg
African penguin skeleton at the Museum of Osteology in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA

African penguins grow to 60–70 cm (24–28 in) tall and weigh between 2.2–3.5 kg (4.9–7.7 lb). [9] The beak length of the African penguin varies, usually growing between 20–30 cm (7.9–11.8 in). They have a black stripe and black spots on the chest, the pattern of which is unique to each penguin, like human fingerprints. The sweat glands above the eyes cool the birds' blood and as the temperature rises, increased blood flow causes the glands to get pinker. [10] This species exhibits slight sexual dimorphism; the males are slightly larger than the females and have longer beaks. [11] Juveniles do not possess the bold, delineated markings of the adult, but instead have dark upperparts that vary from greyish-blue to brown; the pale underparts lack both spots and the band. The beak is more pointed than that of the Humboldt penguin. The African penguin's colouring is a form of protective colouration known as countershading. The white undersides of the birds are difficult to spot by predators under the water and the penguins' black backs blend in with the water when viewed from above.

African penguins resemble and are thought to be related to the Humboldt, Magellanic and Galápagos penguins. [12] African penguins have a very recognisable appearance, with a thick band of black that is in the shape of an upside-down horseshoe. They have black feet and black spots that vary in size and shape between individuals. Magellanic penguins share a similar bar marking that often confuses the two; the Magellanic has a double bar on the throat and chest, whereas the African has a single bar. These penguins have the nickname "jackass penguin", which comes from the loud penguin noises they make.

Distribution and habitat

The African penguin is only found on the southwestern coast of Africa, living in colonies on 24 islands between Namibia and Algoa Bay, near Port Elizabeth, South Africa. [1] It is the only penguin species that breeds in Africa and its presence gave name to the Penguin Islands.

Penguin with chicks, Boulders Beach, South Africa African penguins with chicks.jpg
Penguin with chicks, Boulders Beach, South Africa

Two colonies were established by penguins in the 1980s on the mainland near Cape Town, namely Boulders Beach near Simon's Town and Stony Point in Betty's Bay. Mainland colonies likely became possible only in recent times due to the reduction of predator numbers, although the Betty's Bay colony has been attacked by leopards. [13] [14] The only other mainland colony is in Namibia, but it is not known when it was established.

Boulders Beach is a tourist attraction due to the beach, swimming and the penguins. [15] [16] The penguins will allow people to approach them as close as a meter.

Breeding populations of African penguins are being kept in numerous zoos worldwide. No colonies are known outside the southwestern coast of Africa, although vagrants (mostly juveniles) may occasionally be sighted beyond the normal range.

Population

Roughly 4 million African penguins existed at the beginning of the 19th century. Of the 1.5 million African penguins estimated in 1910, only some 10% remained at the end of the 20th century. African penguin populations, which breed in Namibia and South Africa, have declined by 95% since pre-industrial times. [17]

Today, their breeding is largely restricted to 24 islands from Namibia to Algoa Bay, South Africa, [18] with the Boulders Beach colony being an exception to this rule.

The total population fell to approximately 150,000–180,000 in 2000. [19] [20] Of those, 56,000 belonged to the Dassen Island colony and 14,000 to the Robben Island colony. [21] The colony at Dyer Island in South Africa fell from 46,000 in the early 1970s to 3,000 in 2008. [22]

In 2008, 5,000 breeding pairs were estimated to live in Namibia.

In 2010, the total African penguin population was estimated at 55,000. At the rate of decline seen from 2000 to 2010, the African penguin is expected to be extinct in the wild by 2026. [23]

In 2012, about 18,700 breeding pairs were estimated to live in South Africa, with the majority on St. Croix Island in Algoa Bay. [1] [24]

The total breeding population across both South Africa and Namibia fell to a historic low of about 20,850 pairs in 2019. [25]

Behaviour

Diet

African penguins forage in the open sea, where they feed on pelagic fish such as sardines (including the blue pilchard), Cape horse mackerels, red-eye round herrings [26] and anchovies (specifically the European anchovy and the Southern African anchovy) [27] [26] and marine invertebrates such as squids and small crustaceans, primarily krills and shrimps. [28] Penguins normally swim within 20 km (12 mi) of the shore. [9] A penguin may consume up to 540 grams (1.19 lb) of prey every day, [29] but this may increase to over 1 kg (2.2 lb) when raising older chicks. [28]

Due to the marked decline of sardines in the waters near its habitat, African penguins' diet has shifted towards anchovies to some extent, although available sardine biomass is still a notable determinant of penguin population development and breeding success. While a diet of anchovies appears to be generally sufficient for the penguins, it is not ideal due to anchovies' lower concentrations of fat and protein. The Penguin's diet changes throughout the year; as in many seabirds, it is believed that the interaction of diet choice and breeding success helps the penguins maintain their population size. Although parent penguins are protective of their chicks, they will not incur nutritional deficits themselves if food is scarce and hunting requires a greater time or energy commitment. This may lead to higher rates of brood loss under poor food conditions.

When foraging, African penguins carry out dives that reach an average depth of 25 m (82 ft) and last for 69 seconds, although a maximum depth of 130 m (430 ft) and duration of 275 seconds has been recorded. [30]

Breeding

Egg from the collection of Museum Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, Hesse, Germany Spheniscus demersus MWNH 0522.JPG
Egg from the collection of Museum Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, Hesse, Germany
Nesting burrows of the African penguin, Boulders Beach (2017) Bruthohlen Brillenpinguin.jpg
Nesting burrows of the African penguin, Boulders Beach (2017)

The African penguin is monogamous; it breeds in colonies and pairs return to the same site each year. It has an extended breeding season, with nesting usually peaking from March to May in South Africa and November to December in Namibia. [27] A clutch of two eggs is laid either in burrows burrowed in guano or nests in the sand under boulders or bushes. Incubation is undertaken equally by both parents for around 40 days. At least one parent guards the chicks for about one month, whereafter the chicks join a crèche with other chicks and both parents spend most of the day foraging in the sea.

Chicks fledge at 60 to 130 days, the timing depending on environmental factors such as the quality and availability of food. The fledged chicks then go to sea on their own, where they spend the next one to nearly two years. They then return to their natal colony to moult into adult plumage. [31]

When penguins moult, they are unable to forage in the sea as their new feathers are not yet waterproof; therefore, they fast over the entire moulting period. [31] African penguins typically take around three weeks to moult and lose about half of their body weight by burning up their fat reserves in the process. [32]

African penguins spend most of their lives at sea until it comes time for them to lay their eggs. Females remain fertile for about 10 years. Due to high predation on the mainland, African penguins will seek protection on offshore islands, where they are safer from larger mammals and natural challenges. These penguins usually breed during the winter when temperatures are cooler. African penguins often will abandon their eggs if they become overheated in the hot sun and abandoned eggs never survive the heat. The eggs are three to four times bigger than chicken eggs. Ideally, the eggs are incubated in a burrow dug into the guano layer (which provides suitable temperature regulation), but the widespread human removal of guano deposits has rendered this type of nest unfeasible in many colonies. To compensate, penguins burrow holes in the sand, nest under rocks or bushes or make use of nest boxes if they are provided. The penguins spend three weeks on land caring for their offspring, after which chicks may be left alone during the day while the parents forage. The chicks are frequently killed by predators or succumb to the hot sun. Parents usually feed hatchlings during dusk or dawn.

In 2015, when foraging conditions were favourable, more male than female African penguin chicks were produced in the colony on Bird Island. Male chicks also had higher growth rates and fledging mass and therefore may have higher post-fledging survival than females. This, coupled with higher adult female mortality in this species, may result in a male-biased adult sex ratio and may indicate that conservation strategies focused on benefiting female African penguins may be necessary. [33]

Predation

The average lifespan of an African penguin is 10 to around 25 years in the wild and up to 30 in captivity. [34]

The primary predators of African penguins at sea include sharks and fur seals. While nesting: kelp gulls, Cape genets, mongooses, caracals and domestic cats and dogs may prey on the penguins and their chicks. [35] [36] Mortality from terrestrial predators is higher if penguins are forced to breed in the open in the absence of suitable burrows or nest boxes.

Threats and conservation

African penguin at the New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America AfricanPenguinNEAq.jpg
African penguin at the New England Aquarium, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
(video) African penguin swims in an aquarium in Tokyo, Japan

Historical exploitation

African penguin eggs were considered a delicacy and were still being eaten and collected for sale as recently as the 1970s. In the 1950s, they were being collected from Dassen Island and sold in nearby towns. [37] In 1953, 12,000 eggs were collected. [38] In the late 1950s, some French chefs expressed interest in recipes including African penguin eggs collected from the islands off the west coast of South Africa and placed annual orders for small quantities. [39] [40] [41] In the mid-1960s, eggs were collected in the thousands and sold by the dozen, [42] with each customer limited to two dozen eggs in total. [43]

The practice of collecting African penguin eggs involved smashing those found a few days before a collecting effort to ensure that only freshly laid eggs were sold. This added to the drastic decline of the African penguin population around the Cape coast, a decline which was hastened by the removal of guano from islands for use as fertiliser, eliminating the burrowing material used by penguins. [44]

Oil spills

Penguins remain susceptible to pollution of their habitat by petrochemicals from spills, shipwrecks and cleaning of tankers while at sea. Accounts of African penguins impacted by oil date back to the 1930s. [45] African penguins' exposure to oil spills is both chronic (higher frequency small discharges of oil at sea) and acute (rare maritime disasters where large volumes of oil are released in a single event). Penguins of many species have been impacted by oil spills across the southern hemisphere.

In 1948, the tanker Esso Wheeling sank, subsequently oiling and killing thousands of penguins of the Dyer Island colony. [46] In 1953, dead penguins were among a range of dead birds, fish and other marine life that washed ashore after the tanker Sliedrecht was holed and spilled oil near Table Bay. [47] In 1971, the SS Wafra oil spill impacted the African penguin colony of Dyer Island. In 1972, oil spilt following the Oswego-Guardian and Texanita collision oiled roughly 500 penguins. [48] In 1975, newspapers reported that oil pollution from shipwrecks and the pumping of bilges at sea had killed tens of thousands of African penguins. At the time, the Dassen Island colony was being passed by 650 oil tankers each month [49] because the Suez Canal had become blocked with wrecked vessels, thus increasing maritime traffic past the Cape of Good Hope. [48]

In 1979, an oil spill prompted the collection and treatment of 150 African penguins from St. Croix Island near Port Elizabeth. The animals were later released at Robben Island and four of them promptly swam back to St. Croix Island, surprising scientists. [50] [51]

In 1983, the exposure of penguins of Dassen Island to the oil slick from the Castillo de Bellver was also a topic of concern given the penguins' conservation status at the time, but owing to the prevailing wind and current, only gannets were oiled. [52]

1994 MV Apollo Sea disaster

African penguin casualties were significant following the sinking of the MV Apollo Sea and a subsequent oil slick in 1994. 10,000 penguins were collected and cleaned, of which less than half survived. [53]

2000 MV Treasure crisis

Disaster struck on 23 June 2000, when the iron ore tanker MV Treasure sank between Robben Island and Dassen Island, South Africa. It released 400–1,000 tonnes (390–980 long tons; 440–1,100 short tons) of fuel oil, causing an unprecedented coastal bird crisis and oiling 19,000 adult penguins at the height of the best breeding season on record for this vulnerable species. [54] The oiled birds were brought to an abandoned train repair warehouse in Cape Town to be cared for. An additional 19,500 un-oiled penguins were removed from Dassen Island and other areas before they became oiled and were released about 800 kilometres east of Cape Town. This gave workers enough time to clean up the oiled waters and shores before the birds could complete their long swim home (which took the penguins between one and three weeks). Some of the penguins were named and radio-tracked as they swam back to their breeding grounds. Tens of thousands of volunteers helped with the rescue and rehabilitation process, which was overseen by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the South African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) and took more than three months to complete. This was the largest animal rescue event in history; more than 91% of the penguins were successfully rehabilitated and released – an amazing feat that could not have been accomplished without such a tremendous international response. [55]

Due to the positive outcome of African penguins being raised in captivity after tragedies such as the Treasure oil spill, the species is considered a good "candidate for a captive-breeding programme which aims to release offspring into the wild"; however, worry about the spread of new strains of avian malaria is a major concern in the situation. [56]

Bringing the birds inland led to the exposure of penguins to parasites and disease vectors such as mosquitoes carrying avian malaria, which has caused 27% of the rehabilitated penguin deaths annually. [57]

2016 & 2019 Port of Ngqura

Small-scale oil spills (of less than 400 litres (110 US gal)) have occurred at the Port of Ngqura since bunkering activities started there in 2016. Bunkering is a ship refuelling process that can result in oil spills and oil slicks entering the water. Hundreds of African penguins have been harmed following these spills [58] due to the port's close proximity to penguin rookeries on St. Croix Island and seabird habitat on neighbouring Jahleel and Brenton Islands.

Competition with fisheries

Commercial fisheries of sardines and anchovy, the two main prey species of the penguins, have forced these penguins to search for prey farther offshore, as well as having to switch to eating less nutritious prey. [17] Restricting commercial fishing near colony sites such as Robben Island for short periods (3 years) was shown to markedly improve penguin breeding success. Longer closure periods and closures near other colonies are being evaluated. [59] [60] [61]

Conservation status

The African penguin is one of the species to which the African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) applies. In September 2010, it was listed as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act. [17] As of 2018, the African penguin is listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List. Its population is approximately 50,000 birds and declining. [1]

Mediation efforts

Many organisations such as SANCCOB, Dyer Island Conservation Trust, SAMREC, The National Aviary in Pittsburgh, and Raggy Charters with the Penguin Research Fund in Port Elizabeth are working to halt the decline of the African penguin. Measures include: monitoring population trends, hand-rearing and releasing abandoned chicks, establishing artificial nests and proclaiming marine reserves in which fishing is prohibited. [1] Some colonies (such as on Dyer Island) are suspected to be under heavy pressure from predation by Cape fur seals and may benefit from the culling of individual problem animals, [60] [62] which has been found effective (although requiring a large amount of management effort) in trials. [63]

Established in 1968, SANCCOB is currently the only organisation mandated by the South African government to respond to crises involving seabirds along South Africa's coastline and is internationally recognised for the role it played during the MV Treasure oil spill. A modelling exercise conducted in 2003 by the University of Cape Town's FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology found that rehabilitating oiled African penguins has resulted in the current population being 19% larger than it would have been in the absence of SANCCOB's rehabilitation efforts. [64]

In February 2015, the Dyer Island Conservation Trust opened the African Penguin and Seabird Sanctuary (APSS) in Gansbaai, South Africa. [65] The centre was opened by then-Department of Tourism minister Derek Hanekom [66] and will serve as a hub for seabird research carried out by the Dyer Island Conservation Trust. The centre will also run local education projects, host international marine volunteers and seek to improve seabird handling techniques and rehabilitation protocols.

Captivity

African penguin at the Dallas World Aquarium, Dallas, Texas, United States Dallas World Aquarium January 2019 14 (black-footed penguin).jpg
African penguin at the Dallas World Aquarium, Dallas, Texas, United States

African penguins are a commonly seen species in zoos across the world. Because they do not require particularly low temperatures, they are often kept in outside enclosures. They adapt fairly well to this captive environment and are rather easy to breed compared to other species of the family. In Europe, the breeding programme EAZA is regulated by Artis Royal Zoo in the Netherlands, whilst in the United States the SSP programme is cooperatively managed by the AZA. The idea is to create a backup captive population, as well as to aid in the conservation of the population in its natural habitat. Between 2010 and 2013, American zoos spent $300,000 on in situ (wild population) conservation. [67] [68]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabird</span> Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment

Seabirds are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period, and modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pigeon guillemot</span> Seabird in the auk family from North Pacific coastal waters

The pigeon guillemot is a species of bird in the auk family, Alcidae. One of three species in the genus Cepphus, it is most closely related to the spectacled guillemot. There are five subspecies of the pigeon guillemot; all subspecies, when in breeding plumage, are dark brown with a black iridescent sheen and a distinctive wing patch broken by a brown-black wedge. Its non-breeding plumage has mottled grey and black upperparts and white underparts. The long bill is black, as are the claws. The legs, feet, and inside of the mouth are red. It closely resembles the black guillemot, which is slightly smaller and lacks the dark wing wedge present in the pigeon guillemot.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humboldt penguin</span> Species of bird

The Humboldt penguin is a medium-sized penguin. It resides in South America, its range mainly contains most of coastal Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the Galápagos penguin. The Humboldt penguin and the cold water current it swims in both are named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The species is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN with no population recovery plan in place. The current population is composed of 32,000 mature individuals and is going down. It is a migrant species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magellanic penguin</span> Species of bird

The Magellanic penguin is a South American penguin, breeding in coastal Patagonia, including Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands, with some migrating to Brazil and Uruguay, where they are occasionally seen as far north as Espirito Santo. Vagrants have been found in El Salvador, the Avian Island in Antarctica, Australia, and New Zealand. It is the most numerous of the Spheniscus banded penguins. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Humboldt penguin, and the Galápagos penguins. The Magellanic penguin was named after Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, who spotted the birds in 1520. The species is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater crested tern</span> Seabird in the family Laridae

The greater crested tern, also called crested tern or swift tern, is a tern in the family Laridae that nests in dense colonies on coastlines and islands in the tropical and subtropical Old World. Its five subspecies breed in the area from South Africa around the Indian Ocean to the central Pacific and Australia, all populations dispersing widely from the breeding range after nesting. This large tern is closely related to the royal and lesser crested terns, but can be distinguished by its size and bill colour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Banded penguin</span> Genus of birds

The banded penguins are penguins that belong to the genus Spheniscus. There are four living species, all with similar banded plumage patterns. They are sometimes also known as "jack-ass penguins" due to their loud locator calls sounding similar to a donkey braying. Common traits include a band of black that runs around their bodies bordering their black dorsal coloring, black beaks with a small vertical white band, distinct spots on their bellies, and a small patch of unfeathered or thinly feathered skin around their eyes and underdeveloped fluff sack that can be either white or pink. All members of this genus lay eggs and raise their young in nests situated in burrows or natural depressions in the earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dassen Island</span> Ramsar site island in South Africa

Dassen Island is an uninhabited South African island in the Atlantic Ocean. It is situated about 10 km (6 mi) west of Yzerfontein and 55 km (34 mi) north of Cape Town. The flat and low-lying island measures about 3.1 km (1.9 mi) long northwest-southeast and 1 km (0.6 mi) wide, with an area of 2.73 km2 (1.05 sq mi). It is a proclaimed nature reserve.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algoa Bay</span> Maritime bay in the Eastern Cape of South Africa

Algoa Bay is a maritime bay in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. It is located on the east coast, 683 kilometres (424 mi) east of the Cape of Good Hope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boulders Beach</span> Beach in Cape Town, South Africa

Boulders Beach is a sheltered beach made up of inlets between granite boulders, from which the name originated. It is located on the Cape Peninsula, in Simon's Town in the Western Cape province of South Africa. It is also commonly known as Boulders Bay. It is a popular tourist spot because of a colony of African penguins which settled there in 1982. Boulders Beach forms part of the Table Mountain National Park.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SANCCOB</span>

The Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB) is an international body dedicated to seabird rehabilitation. The only seabird rehabilitation organization registered with the South African Veterinary Council, the non-profit centre is based at the Rietvlei Wetland Reserve in Table View, South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fluttering shearwater</span> Species of bird

The fluttering shearwater is a species of seabird in the family Procellariidae. It is endemic to New Zealand and migrates to Australia and the Solomon Islands. Its natural habitats are open seas and rocky shores. It has been known as Forster's shearwater in the past.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mercury Island</span> Island off Namibia

Mercury Island is a small rocky island off The Diamond Coast, Namibia. Despite its small size it is recognised by BirdLife International and other global conservation groups as an Important Bird Area (IBA) for its significant coastal seabird breeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galapagos penguin</span> Species of bird

The Galápagos penguin is a penguin endemic to the Galápagos Islands and Ecuador. It is the only penguin found north of the equator. Most inhabit Fernandina Island and the west coast of Isabela Island. The cool waters of the Humboldt and Cromwell Currents allow it to survive despite the tropical latitude. The Galápagos penguin is one of the banded penguins, the other species of which live mostly on the coasts of Africa and mainland South America. Due to their warm environment, Galápagos penguins have developed techniques to stay cool. The feathers on their back, flippers, and head are black, and they have a white belly and a stripe looping from their eyes down to their neck and chin. Each penguin keeps only one mate, and breeds year-round. Their nests are typically in caves and crevices as protection against predators and the harsh environment. The Galápagos penguin has a lifespan of about 15 to 20 years, but due to predation, life expectancy in the wild could be significantly reduced. They have been critically impacted to the point of endangerment by climate change and pollution caused by plastic waste due to tourism and urbanization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabird breeding behavior</span>

The term seabird is used for many families of birds in several orders that spend the majority of their lives at sea. Seabirds make up some, if not all, of the families in the following orders: Procellariiformes, Sphenisciformes, Pelecaniformes, and Charadriiformes. Many seabirds remain at sea for several consecutive years at a time, without ever seeing land. Breeding is the central purpose for seabirds to visit land. The breeding period is usually extremely protracted in many seabirds and may last over a year in some of the larger albatrosses; this is in stark contrast with passerine birds. Seabirds nest in single or mixed-species colonies of varying densities, mainly on offshore islands devoid of terrestrial predators. However, seabirds exhibit many unusual breeding behaviors during all stages of the reproductive cycle that are not extensively reported outside of the primary scientific literature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scripps's murrelet</span> Species of bird

Scripps's murrelet is a small seabird found in the California Current system in the Pacific Ocean. This auk breeds on islands off California and Mexico. It is threatened by predators introduced to its breeding colonies and by oil spills.

International Bird Rescue is a nonprofit organization that rehabilitates injured aquatic birds, most notably seabirds affected by oil spills. Founded by Alice Berkner and members of the Ecology Action, including veterinarian James Michael Harris, D.V.M. in 1971 and based in Cordelia, California, the group has developed scientifically-based bird rehabilitation techniques and has led oiled wildlife rescue efforts in more than 200 oil spills worldwide, including the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, and the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, where International Bird Rescue co-managed oiled bird rehabilitation efforts in four states with Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research.

The MV Treasure oil spill occurred on 23 June 2000, when the ship sank six miles off the coast of South Africa while transporting iron ore from China to Brazil. The ship was carrying an estimated 1,300 tons of fuel oil, some of which spilled into the ocean, threatening the African penguin populations living on nearby islands. Cleanup efforts began promptly after the incident with particular attention being paid to salvaging the penguin communities.

<i>Eudyptula novaehollandiae</i> Species of penguin

The Australian little penguin, also called the fairy penguin, little blue penguin, or blue penguin, is a species of penguin from Australia and the Otago region of New Zealand. The species was described as Spheniscusnovaehollandiae in 1826. It was later reclassified as Eudyptulaminornovaehollandiae, a subspecies of the little penguin. After a 2016 study, Eudyptula novaehollandiae was again recognised as a distinct species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ichaboe Island</span> Island in ǁKaras Region, Namibia

Ichaboe Island is a small rocky island off Namibia's Diamond Coast. It is recognised by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBAs) for its seabird breeding colonies.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 BirdLife International (2020). "Spheniscus demersus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020: e.T22697810A157423361. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22697810A157423361.en . Retrieved 11 September 2023.
  2. ↑ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 2022-01-14.
  3. ↑ Favaro, Livio; Ozella, Laura; Pessani, Daniela; Pavan, Gianni (30 July 2014). "The Vocal Repertoire of the African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus): Structure and Function of Calls". PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e103460. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j3460F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103460 . PMC   4116197 . PMID   25076136.
  4. ↑ Edwards, George (1747). A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Vol. Part II. London: Printed for the author at the College of Physicians. p. 94, Plate 94.
  5. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 132.
  6. ↑ Brisson, Mathurin Jacques (1760). Ornithologie, ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, especes & leurs variétés (in French and Latin). Vol. 1. Paris: Jean-Baptiste Bauche. Vol. 1, p. 42, Vol. 6, p. 96.
  7. ↑ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (July 2021). "Kagu, Sunbittern, tropicbirds, loons, penguins". IOC World Bird List Version 11.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
  8. ↑ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp.  132, 361. ISBN   978-1-4081-2501-4.
  9. 1 2 Sinclair, Ian; Hockey, Phil; Tarboton, Warwick; Ryan, Peter (2011). Sasol Birds Of South Africa. Struik. p. 22. ISBN   9781770079250.
  10. ↑ Mahard, Tyler (2012). "The Black-footed Penguin Spheniscus demersus". Wildlife Monthly. Retrieved 2012-11-20.
  11. ↑ "African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)". Dyer Island Conservation Trust. Archived from the original on 2009-10-26.
  12. ↑ a-z animals. "The African Penguin". a-z animals. Retrieved 2013-07-09.
  13. ↑ "The African Penguin". Bettysbay. 2010-04-08. Archived from the original on 2012-05-30. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  14. ↑ "CapeNature increases protection from predators at Stony Point". CapeNature. Archived from the original on 2018-08-07. Retrieved 2020-07-06.
  15. ↑ "Table Mountain National Park". SANParks. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  16. ↑ "Boulders Beach, Swimming with Penguins – Swimming with Penguins in South Africa". Goafrica. 2010-06-14. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  17. 1 2 3 Kilduff, Catherine (2010-09-28). "Vanishing African Penguin, Threatened by Climate Change and Fishing, Wins Protections". seaturtles.org. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03.
  18. ↑ "Know your Georgia Aquarium penguins (2006)". The Atlanta Constitution. 2006-11-17. pp. G6. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  19. ↑ "Penguins begin swim home (Treasure, 2000)". York Daily Record. 2000-10-12. p. 6. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  20. ↑ "Penguins elude oil spill but fishermen open fire, South Africa (2000)". Calgary Herald. 2000-07-21. p. 12. Retrieved 2020-07-02.
  21. ↑ "Flight of the African penguin (2000)". Tampa Bay Times. 2000-07-08. p. 2. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  22. ↑ "Experiments seek to house declining South African penguins (2009)". The Boston Globe. 2009-03-30. pp. A6. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  23. ↑ "African Penguin; Endangered; Cape Town". Globalpost.com. 2011-06-19. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  24. ↑ Makhado, A. B., B. N. Dyer, R. Fox, D. Geldenhuys, L. Pichegru, R. M. Randall, R .B. Sherley, L. Upfold, J. Visagie., L. J. Waller, P. A. Whittington, and R. J .M. Crawford. 2013. Estimates of numbers of twelve seabird species breeding in South Africa, updated to include 2012. Branch Oceans and Coasts, Department of Environmental Affairs, Cape Town.
  25. ↑ Sherley, R. B.; Crawford, R. J.; de Blocq, A. D.; Dyer, B. M.; Geldenhuys, D.; Hagen, C.; Kemper, J.; Makhado, A. B.; Pichegru, L.; Upfold, L.; Visagie, J.; Waller, Lauren J.; Winker, Henning (2020). "The conservation status and population decline of the African penguin deconstructed in space and time". bioRxiv. 10 (15): 8506–8516. doi:10.1101/2020.01.15.907485. PMC   7417240 . PMID   32788996.
  26. 1 2 "Spheniscus demersus (Jackass penguin)". Animal Diversity Web .
  27. 1 2 "African penguin videos, photos and facts – Spheniscus demersus". ARKive. Archived from the original on 2012-03-22. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  28. 1 2 "The African Penguin Simons Town". Simonstown.com. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  29. ↑ Crawford, R. J. M.; Ryan, P. G.; Williams, A. J. (1991). "Seabird consumption and production in the Benguela and western Agulhas ecosystems". South African Journal of Marine Science. 11 (1): 357–375. doi:10.2989/025776191784287709.
  30. ↑ Ropert-Coudert Y; Kato A; Robbins A; Humphries GRW (October 2018). "African Penguin (Spheniscus demersus)". The Penguiness book, version 3.0. Unpublished. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.32289.66406.
  31. 1 2 Wolfaardt, A. C.; Underhill, L. G.; Visagie, J. (2009). "Breeding and moult phenology of African penguins Spheniscus demersus at Dassen Island". African Journal of Marine Science. 31 (2): 119–132. Bibcode:2009AfJMS..31..119W. doi:10.2989/AJMS.2009.31.2.1.873. S2CID   85264159.
  32. ↑ "African Penguin". Toronto Zoo. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
  33. ↑ Spelt, A.; Pichegru, L. (2017). "Sex allocation and sex-specific parental investment in an endangered seabird". Ibis. 159 (2): 272–284. doi:10.1111/ibi.12457.
  34. ↑ "ADW: Spheniscus demersus: Information". Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. 2010-02-01. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  35. ↑ Whittington, P. A.; Hofmeyr, J. H.; Cooper, J. (1996). "Establishment, growth and conservation of a mainland colony of Jackass Penguins Spheniscus demersus at Stony Point, Betty's Bay, South Africa". Ostrich. 67 (3–4): 144–150. Bibcode:1996Ostri..67..144W. doi:10.1080/00306525.1996.9639700.
  36. ↑ "African penguin". Neaq.org. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  37. ↑ "Dassen Island African penguins (1955)". The Pantagraph. 1955-01-09. p. 10. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  38. ↑ "Penguin playmates & egg exports, Dassen Island (1954)". Press and Sun-Bulletin. 1954-10-23. p. 4. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  39. ↑ "French Gourmet Finds Penguin Egg Recipes (1959)". The Racine Journal-Times Sunday Bulletin. 1959-08-09. p. 17. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  40. ↑ "Penguin-egg eating may spread (1959)". The Troy Record. 1956-07-23. p. 14. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  41. ↑ "Penguin eggs sent to French eaters (1959)". The Daily Oklahoman. 1959-05-24. p. 48. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  42. ↑ "Penguins' Eggs Again To Grace Gourmets' Tables (1965)". Arizona Daily Star. 1965-05-30. p. 32. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  43. ↑ "Must Ration Penguin Eggs at $2.10 a Dozen (1965)". Sioux City Journal. 1965-05-09. p. 49. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  44. ↑ Shannon, L. J.; Crawford, R. J. M. (1999). "Management of the African penguin Spheniscus demersus — insights from modelling". Marine Ornithology. 27: 119–128.
  45. ↑ "Oily penguin, South Africa (1936)". Hartford Courant. 1936-08-02. p. 70. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  46. ↑ "Oil wrecks penguins of Dyer Island (Esso Wheeling, 1949)". The Morning Call. 1949-04-29. p. 22. Retrieved 2020-07-07.
  47. ↑ "Ship Oil Kills Fish, Penguins". Newcastle Sun (NSW: 1918-1954). 1953-11-03. p. 8. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  48. 1 2 "Brief History of Penguin Oiling in South African Waters | Animal Demography Unit". www.adu.uct.ac.za. Retrieved 2020-07-07.
  49. ↑ "South Africa's penguins die from oil pollution effects (1975)". Arizona Republic. 1975-05-01. p. 1. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  50. ↑ ""Homing" Penguins Travel 500 Miles (1979)". The Charlotte News. 1979-09-17. p. 4. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  51. ↑ "Penguins baffle scientists (1979)". The Daily News. 1979-09-18. p. 27. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  52. ↑ "Split Supertanker Gets Slow Tow Out To Sea (Castillo de Bellver oil spill, 1983)". The Baytown Sun. 1983-08-08. p. 6. Retrieved 2020-05-09.
  53. ↑ Wolfaardt, A. C.; Underhill, L. G.; Altwegg, R.; Visagie, J. (2008). "Restoration of oiled African penguins Spheniscus demersus a decade after the Apollo Sea spill". African Journal of Marine Science. 30 (2): 421–436. Bibcode:2008AfJMS..30..421W. doi:10.2989/ajms.2008.30.2.14.564. S2CID   85384818.
  54. ↑ "Penguins, rescue, rehabilitation, research, internships". Sanccob. Retrieved 2015-09-25.
  55. ↑ ""Jackass Penguins Freed after Rehab", National Geographic's Video News, June 17, 2009". National Geographic. 2009-06-17. Archived from the original on June 19, 2009. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
  56. ↑ Barham, P. J.; L. G. Underhill; R. J. M. Crawford; R. Altewegg; T. M. Leshoro; D. A. Bolton; B. M. Dyer & L. Upfold (2008). "The efficacy of hand-rearing penguin chicks: evidence from African penguins (Spheniscus demersus) orphaned in the Treasure oil spill". Bird Conservation International. 18 (2). doi: 10.1017/S0959270908000142 .
  57. ↑ Grim, C. (2003). "Plasmodium juxtanucleare associated with mortality in black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) admitted to a rehabilitation center". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 34 (3): 250–5. doi:10.1638/02-070. JSTOR   20460327. PMID   14582786. S2CID   41534960.
  58. ↑ "Refuelling under scrutiny as S. Africa penguins hit by oil spill". phys.org. Retrieved 2020-04-23.
  59. ↑ Sherley, R. B.; Underhill, L. G.; Barham, B. J.; Barham, P. J.; Coetzee, J. C.; Crawford, R. J.; Dyer, B. M.; Leshoro, T. M.; Upfold, L. (2013). "Influence of local and regional prey availability on breeding performance of African penguins Spheniscus demersus". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 473: 291–301. Bibcode:2013MEPS..473..291S. doi: 10.3354/meps10070 .
  60. 1 2 Weller, Florian; Sherley, Richard B.; Waller, Lauren J.; Ludynia, Katrin; Geldenhuys, Deon; Shannon, Lynne J.; Jarre, Astrid (2016). "System dynamics modelling of the Endangered African penguin populations on Dyer and Robben islands, South Africa". Ecological Modelling. 327: 44–56. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2016.01.011.
  61. ↑ Sherley, Richard B.; et al. (2018). "Bayesian inference reveals positive but subtle effects of experimental fishery closures on marine predator demographics". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 285 (1871): 20172443. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2443. PMC   5805942 . PMID   29343602.
  62. ↑ Ludynia, K.; L. J. Waller; R. B. Sherley; F. Abadi; Y. Galada; D. Geldenhuys; R. J. M. Crawford; L. J. Shannon & A. Jarre (2014). "Processes influencing the population dynamics and conservation of African penguins on Dyer Island, South Africa". African Journal of Marine Science. 36 (2): 253. Bibcode:2014AfJMS..36..253L. doi:10.2989/1814232X.2014.929027. S2CID   84659321.
  63. ↑ Makhado, A. B.; M. A. Meÿer; R. J. M. Crawford; L. G. Underhill & C. Wilke (2009). "The efficacy of culling seals seen preying on seabirds as a means of reducing seabird mortality". African Journal of Ecology. 47 (3): 335. Bibcode:2009AfJEc..47..335M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.00966.x. hdl: 11427/24160 .
  64. ↑ Nel, D. C.; Crawford, R. J. M.; Parsons, N. J. (2003). "The conservation status and impact of oiling on the African penguin". In Nel, D. C.; Whittington, P. A. (eds.). Rehabilitation of Oiled African Penguins: a Conservation Success Story. Cape Town: BirdLife South Africa and Avian Demography Unit. pp. 1–7.
  65. ↑ "First Class African Penguin and Seabird Sanctuary Opens in Kleinbaai, Overberg". SceinicSouth. 2015-02-26. Retrieved 2015-03-12.
  66. ↑ ""Rehab center goes to the birds", iol SciTech, March 3, 2015". iol.co.za. 2015-03-03. Retrieved 2015-03-12.
  67. ↑ "African Penguin". aza.org.
  68. ↑ "Nature conservation project African penguin". artis.nl.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.