Calostoma cinnabarinum | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Fungi |
Division: | Basidiomycota |
Class: | Agaricomycetes |
Order: | Boletales |
Family: | Sclerodermataceae |
Genus: | Calostoma |
Species: | C. cinnabarinum |
Binomial name | |
Calostoma cinnabarinum | |
Synonyms | |
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Calostoma cinnabarinum | |
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Glebal hymenium | |
Hymenium attachment is not applicable | |
Stipe is bare | |
Spore print is yellow to buff | |
Ecology is mycorrhizal | |
Edibility is inedible |
Calostoma cinnabarinum, commonly known as the stalked puffball-in-aspic,gelatinous stalked-puffball, or red slimy-stalked puffball, [2] is a species of gasteroid fungus in the family Sclerodermataceae, and is the type species of the genus Calostoma. The fruit body has a distinctive color and overall appearance, featuring a layer of yellowish jelly surrounding a bright red, spherical head approximately 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in diameter atop a red or yellowish brown spongy stipe 1.5 to 4 cm (0.6 to 2 in) tall. The innermost layer of the head is the gleba, containing clear or slightly yellowish elliptical spores, measuring 14–20 micrometers (μm) long by 6–9 μm across. The spore surface features a pattern of small pits, producing a net-like appearance. A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, Central America, northeastern South America, and East Asia. C. cinnabarinum grows on the ground in deciduous forests, where it forms mycorrhizal associations with oaks.
Despite its appearance and common name, C. cinnabarinum is not related to the true puffballs or to species in the genus Podaxis (also commonly called "stalked puffballs"). It is also unrelated to earthstars and stinkhorns. However, C. cinnabarinum has had a complex taxonomic history that at various times confused it with each of those groups, until the advent of molecular phylogenetics. Although eaten or used in folk medicine in some areas, it is typically considered inedible.
Calostoma cinnabarinum has a long taxonomic history. Leonard Plukenet illustrated a "dusty fungus from Virginia, an elegant twisted work with a coral-red stipe" [Note 1] in his 1692 Phytographia [3] that was later recognized as this species. [4] In 1809, Christiaan Persoon provided the first modern scientific description, as Scleroderma callostoma, and suggested that the species might be distinctive enough to warrant the creation of a new genus. [5] Later that year, Nicaise Desvaux did just that, creating the genus Calostoma. [6] To avoid a tautonymous name, he renamed the type species C. cinnabarinum. [1]
In 1811, Louis Bosc did not mention the earlier works when describing it as Lycoperdon heterogeneum, although he also suggested it should be placed in its own genus. [7] Jean Poiret transferred Persoon's S. callostoma to Lycoperdon in 1817, while including Bosc's L. heterogeneum separately. [8] In the same year, Nees von Esenbeck noted Bosc's belief that the species deserved its own genus and created Mitremyces, without referencing Desvaux's prior assignment to Calostoma. [9] An 1825 paper by Edward Hitchcock referred to the species with the entirely novel binomial name Gyropodium coccineum; although Hitchcock claimed this name was established by Lewis Schweinitz, he admitted that no such description had been previously published, [10] and the name and its claimed origin are considered doubtful. [11]
Schweinitz assigned Bosc's Lycoperdon heterogeneum to Mitremyces under the name M. lutescens in 1822. [12] He revisited the genus a decade later, describing M. cinnabarinum as a novel species, [13] but incomplete descriptions and mislabelled specimens caused confusion. [14] August Corda separated them more clearly, providing new descriptions, and assigning cinnabarinum to Calostoma based on the descriptions of Desvaux and Persoon, while maintaining lutescens in Mitremyces. [15] George Massee's 1888 monograph of Calostoma discounted the distinction entirely, arguing that Schweinitz's two species were actually the same species at different stages of development. [16] In 1897, Charles Edward Burnap published a new description of C. lutescens , making a clear division between the two similar species [14] that has not been substantially revised since. References to this species as "C. cinnabarina" are common but incorrect. [17]
The specific epithet cinnabarinum is derived from the Ancient Greek word kinnábari (κιννάβαρι), and refers to its "cinnabar-red" [18] color, like that of dragon's blood. [19] Its names in the English vernacular include "stalked puffball-in-aspic", [17] [20] [21] "red slimy-stalked puffball", [22] "aspic puffball", [23] "gelatinous-stalked puffball", [18] [24] and "hot lips". [18] In central Mexico, it is known as "orchid fungus" in both Spanish (hongo orquídea) and Nahuatl (huang noono). [25]
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Cladogram showing the phylogeny and relationships of Calostoma cinnabarinum within Sclerodermatineae [26] |
The relationships and evolutionary origins of Calostoma were a matter of considerable historical debate. Based on various morphological features, 19th-century mycologists viewed it as a relative of, variously, Scleroderma , [27] Clathrus , [28] Geastrum , [16] or Tulostoma . [14] The advent of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century confirmed that the order Gasteromycetales was polyphyletic because gasteroid fungi do not form a single clade. Efforts to use nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequencing to resolve the proper taxonomic placement of these fungi revealed that Calostoma cinnabarinum was not closely related to true puffballs, stinkhorns, most earthstars, or gasteroid agarics such as Tulostoma or Podaxis , but instead belonged within the Boletales. [24] Further research organized a group of mostly gasteroid fungi, including Calostoma, into the newly named suborder Sclerodermatineae. This analysis confirmed that C. cinnabarinum and C. ravenelii are distinct species, and identified their closest relatives outside the genus as Gyroporus , Astraeus , and Scleroderma. [29] A subsequent multigene (nuc-ssu, nuc-lsu, 5.8S, atp6 , and mt-lsu) study redrew the Sclerodermatineae cladogram slightly, making Pisolithus the closest relatives of Calostoma. [26]
Calostoma cinnabarinum's physical dissimilarity to many other species in Boletales corresponds to a higher rate of genetic drift than average for the order. [24] This trait is shared with other members of the Sclerodermatineae, which as a group have undergone more rapid evolutionary change than the order as a whole. [29]
The assignment of Calostoma to the Boletales placed it in an order whose biochemistry has been the topic of research. Most members of the Boletales are characterized by compounds produced by the shikimate-chorismate pathway, [30] including several distinctive pigments. [31] [32] Gertraud Gruber and Wolfgang Steglich were not able to detect these compounds in C. cinnabarinum, but isolated a novel polyene pigment. This compound, named calostomal, is responsible for the orange-red color of the fruit bodies. The methyl ester of calostomal was subjected to NMR spectroscopy and was identified as all-trans-16-oxohexadeca-2,4,6,8,10,12,14-heptaenoic acid. [20] Chemically related pigments, the boletocrocins, had been isolated from the brightly colored Boletus laetissimus and B. rufoaureus . [33] It is not yet clear if the results of this chemotaxonomic investigation will mandate changes to Boletales cladistics. [20]
The appearance of the fruit bodies has been compared to amphibian eggs [34] or "small red tomato[es] surrounded by jelly". [35] They consist of a bright red, globose head atop a net-like stipe, covered in a thick gelatinous layer. [23] These fruit bodies are initially hypogeous, [22] but emerge from the ground as the stipe continues to expand. [34]
The head is up to 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter and typically nearly round, [17] [36] although in some populations, it is visibly oval and may be slightly smaller [37] or larger. [38] The internal structure of the head is complex, sometimes described as an exoperidium and endoperidium that each possess sublayers, [22] and sometimes as distinct layers. [14] The outermost is a yellowish, translucent coating of jelly-like material 4 to 9 millimetres (0.2 to 0.4 in) thick, [38] somewhat similar to a gelatinous universal veil. [14] [22] Below this coating is a thin, cinnabar-red membrane. [22] [38] As the mushroom ages, these outer layers break down and fall away from the head. Pieces of the red membrane become embedded in the remaining gelatinous material, giving them the appearance of small red seeds. [36] [37] This process reveals the endoperidium, a tough, non-gelatinous layer that does not break apart. When first revealed, it has a powdery, bright red surface that weathers to orange or pale yellow as the powder wears away. [22] [38] Bright red apical ridges or rays form a peristome. North American specimens typically have four to five such ridges, [22] [37] but Asian populations have been described with as many as seven. [38] Contained inside the endoperidium is the gleba, or spore mass, which is white when young but buff or yellow in older specimens. [17]
Like the head, the stipe is covered in a gelatinous outer layer. [36] The stipe itself consists of a number of anastomosing gelatinous strands, [18] giving the structure a reticulate [17] or spongy [36] appearance. These strands vary in color from red to yellow-brown, and fade with age. [22] The stipe is 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) thick and 1.5 to 4 cm (0.6 to 2 in) long, although some or all of this length may remain buried. [17] [36]
When viewed in mass, as in a spore print, the spores generally appear yellow, [34] [39] although a Korean population with a light pink spore mass has been observed. [38] Viewed with a light microscope, the spores are hyaline [18] or pale yellow, [11] elliptical, and visibly pitted. Electron microscopy or atomic force microscopy reveals the pits, or pores, to be an elaborate net-like structure called a reticulum. There are two to three such pores per micrometer, each approximately 400 nanometers deep. [40] Most spores are 14–20 by 6–9 μm, [18] but some may be as long as 24 [11] or 28 μm; [17] specimens from a Korean population were reported with slightly smaller spores. Unlike others in the genus, C. cinnabarinum does not use nurse cells to supply food material to spores. [40] The basidia are 40–50 by 15–20 μm, broadly obovate, [16] club-shaped or sometimes cylindrical, with five to twelve spores distributed evenly [14] or irregularly [38] over the surface. The gleba also contains branching hyphae, 3–4 μm thick with frequent clamp connections. [14] The capillitium formed by these connections [38] is present only when the mushroom is young and disintegrates thereafter. [22]
At least in North America, Calostoma cinnabarinum is distinctive and easily recognizable. [17] Two other species of Calostoma also occur in the eastern United States. C. lutescens has a thinner gelatinous layer and a predominately yellow middle layer, or mesoperidium, with the red color confined to the peristome. [11] It also possesses a well-defined collar at the base of the spore case, [18] a longer stipe, and globose, pitted spores. [17] C. ravenelii is not gelatinous, but instead has warts adorning the spore case, [11] and is smaller than C. cinnabarinum. [18] It also has a reddish peristome but is otherwise clay-colored. [41] Unlike C. lutescens, the spores of C. ravenelii cannot be distinguished from those of C. cinnabarinum except through the use of atomic force microscopy. [40]
More representatives of the genus are present in Asia. At least nine species have been recorded from mainland India, some of which also overlap C. cinnabarinum's range in Indonesia, Taiwan, or Japan. [42] Many of these species can be readily distinguished by macroscopic features. C. japonicum is pinkish orange and lacks a gelatinous outer layer, [38] while both C. jiangii [43] and C. junghuhnii [39] are brown. However, others require microscopic features of spore shape and ornamentation for identification. Unlike the uniformly elongated spores of C. cinnabarinum, C. guizhouense possesses both elliptical and globose spores. [43] C. pengii differs primarily in the pattern of ornamentation on its spore surface. [44]
Widely distributed, Calostoma cinnabarinum can be found from Massachusetts south to Florida in the United States. Its range extends at least as far west as Texas, [45] with possible populations in the Southwest, [17] but is most common in the Appalachian Mountains where it becomes more frequent with increasing elevation. [11] It is also present in Eastern Mexico, where it grows in the subtropical cloud forests of Veracruz [46] and Hidalgo. [47] In Central America, it is known from Belize's Chiquibul National Park, [48] the cloud forests [49] of Baja Verapaz and El Quiché [50] in Guatemala, and Panama. [51] The species is also recorded in South America, from Colombia [52] as far southeast as Brazil, where it is described as rare. [53] It has also been collected from a disjunct population in Asia, where it has been recorded from seven provinces in mainland China, mostly in the southeast, [38] including Taiwan, [39] as well as from Indonesia, [54] Japan, [55] and Jirisan in South Korea. [40]
Calostoma cinnabarinum was thought to be saprotrophic, and has been described in this manner in both scholarly [41] and popular [18] discussions of the species. However, this classification was the result of its taxonomic history and comparisons with saprotrophic fungi that are not closely related. [24] After its assignment to the Sclerodermatineae, [29] a suborder whose members are ectomycorrhizal, [56] [57] [58] its ecological role came into question. [24] In 2007, Andrew Wilson and David Hibbett of Clark University and Eric Hobbie of the University of New Hampshire employed isotopic labeling, DNA sequencing, and morphological analysis to determine that this species is also ectomycorrhizal. [59] Like all mycorrhizal fungi, C. cinnabarinum establishes a mutualistic relationship with the roots of trees, allowing the fungus to exchange minerals and amino acids extracted from the soil for fixed carbon from the host. The subterranean hyphae of the fungus grow a sheath of tissue around the rootlets of the tree. This association is especially beneficial to the host, as the fungus produces enzymes that mineralize organic compounds and facilitate the transfer of nutrients to the tree. [60] The only host trees identified for C. cinnabarinus are Quercus oaks, although related members of Calostoma have been observed to associate with other trees in the family Fagaceae, such as beech. [59] [61]
In addition to its required association with oaks, C. cinnabarinum appears to be restricted to wetter forests. [61] Early descriptions of its habitat found it in "rather moist situations" [14] and in "damp woods", [62] and David Arora has more recently described its preference for the humid forests of the southern Appalachians. [22] In contrast, it has not been detected in the dry oak forests of California [63] [64] and is likely also absent from the dry tropical forests of western Costa Rica. [61] In Brazil it has been observed in the sandy soil and drier conditions of the Caatinga and cerrado, although only after periods of heavy rainfall. [53] Its outer layer may provide protection from desiccation. [65] Fruit bodies are most common in the late summer and fall, [22] [36] although spring occurrences are known. [18]
Squirrels have been known to feed on C. cinnabarinum, [66] although its gelatinous coating deters insect predation. [40] [41]
As with all members of its genus, C. cinnabarinum is generally considered inedible by field guides. [67] Because the fruit bodies begin development underground, they are too tough for consumption by the time they are visible, [22] and their appearance may be considered unappetizing. [21] A study of the cultural practices of mestizo descendants of the Otomi people in Tenango de Doria, Mexico, reported that immature specimens of C. cinnabarinum, known locally as yemitas, were frequently eaten raw in the past, especially by children. Consumption of the species was no longer commonplace, with only five of the 450 locals interviewed familiar with the practice. [66] The gleba of C. cinnabarinum has been described as having a mild taste [38] and, despite a local recollection to the contrary, is not sweet. [66] C. cinnabarinum has also been used in traditional medicine. A 1986 ethnomycological study of native traditions in Veracruz identified this use of huang noono, which locals roasted, then consumed as a powder with mineral water to treat gastrointestinal distress. [25] Unlike these Mexican traditions, Hunan folk beliefs hold that the mushroom is poisonous on account of its bright color. [68]
Puffballs are a type of fungus featuring a ball-shaped fruit body that bursts on contact or impact, releasing a cloud of dust-like spores into the surrounding area. Puffballs belong to the division Basidiomycota and encompass several genera, including Calvatia, Calbovista and Lycoperdon. The puffballs were previously treated as a taxonomic group called the Gasteromycetes or Gasteromycetidae, but they are now known to be a polyphyletic assemblage.
The Boletales are an order of Agaricomycetes containing over 1300 species with a diverse array of fruiting body types. The boletes are the best known members of this group, and until recently, the Boletales were thought to only contain boletes. The Boletales are now known to contain distinct groups of agarics, puffballs, and other fruiting-body types.
Phallaceae is a family of fungi, commonly known as stinkhorns, within the order Phallales. Stinkhorns have a worldwide distribution, but are especially prevalent in tropical regions. They are known for their foul-smelling, sticky spore masses, or gleba, borne on the end of a stalk called the receptaculum. The characteristic fruiting-body structure, a single, unbranched receptaculum with an externally attached gleba on the upper part, distinguishes the Phallaceae from other families in the Phallales. The spore mass typically smells of carrion or dung, and attracts flies, beetles and other insects to help disperse the spores. Although there is great diversity in body structure shape among the various genera, all species in the Phallaceae begin their development as oval or round structures known as "eggs". The appearance of Phallaceae is often sudden, as gleba can erupt from the underground egg and burst open within an hour. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 21 genera and 77 species.
The Sclerodermataceae are a family of fungi in the order Boletales, containing several genera of unusual fungi that little resemble boletes. Taxa, which include species commonly known as the ‘hard-skinned puffballs’, ‘earthballs’, or 'earthstars', are widespread in both temperate and tropical regions. The best known members include the earthball Scleroderma citrinum, the dye fungus Pisolithus tinctorius and the 'prettymouths' of the genus Calostoma.
Calvatia craniiformis, commonly known as the brain puffball or the skull-shaped puffball, is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae. It is found in Asia, Australia, and North America, where it grows on the ground in open woods. Its name, derived from the same Latin root as cranium, alludes to its resemblance to an animal's brain. The skull-shaped fruit body is 8–20 cm (3–8 in) broad by 6–20 cm (2–8 in) tall and white to tan. Initially smooth, the skin (peridium) develops wrinkles and folds as it matures, cracking and flaking with age. The peridium eventually sloughs away, exposing a powdery yellow-brown to greenish-yellow spore mass. The puffball is edible when the gleba is still white and firm, before it matures to become yellow-brown and powdery. Mature specimens have been used in the traditional or folk medicines of China, Japan, and the Ojibwe as a hemostatic or wound dressing agent. Several bioactive compounds have been isolated and identified from the brain puffball.
Calostoma is a genus of 29 species of gasteroid fungi in the suborder Sclerodermatineae. Like other gasteroid fungi, Calostoma do not have the spore discharge mechanism associated with typical gilled fungi (ballistospory), and instead have enclosed spore-bearing structures. Resembling round puffballs with raised, brightly colored spore openings (ostioles), elevated on a thick, gelatinous stalks, species have been collected in regions of deciduous, temperate, tropical or subtropical forests. Their distribution includes eastern North America, Central America, Asia, and Australasia. The common name given to some species, "prettymouth", alludes to the brightly colored raised openings (ostioles) that may somewhat resemble lips. Other common names include "hotlips" and "puffball in aspic".
Clathrus ruber is a species of fungus in the family Phallaceae, and the type species of the genus Clathrus. It is commonly known as the latticed stinkhorn, the basket stinkhorn, or the red cage, alluding to the striking fruit bodies that are shaped somewhat like a round or oval hollow sphere with interlaced or latticed branches. The species was illustrated in the scientific literature during the 16th century, but was not officially described until 1729.
Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch. The fruit body, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore mass, the gleba, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the family Phallaceae, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible.
Battarrea phalloides is an inedible species of mushroom in the family Agaricaceae, and the type species of the genus Battarrea. Known in the vernacular as the scaley-stalked puffball, sandy stiltball, or desert stalked puffball, it has a woody, slender, and shaggy or scaly stem that is typically up to 40 centimeters (15.7 in) in length. Although its general appearance resembles an agaric with stem and gills, atop the stem is a spore sac, consisting of a peridium and a powdery internal gleba. In maturity, the spore sac ruptures to release the spores. Battarrea phalloides is found in dry, sandy locations throughout the world, and has been collected from Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. There is currently some disagreement in the literature as to whether the European B. stevensii is the same species as B. phalloides.
Astraeus is a genus of fungi in the family Diplocystaceae. The genus, which has a cosmopolitan distribution, contains nine species of earthstar mushroom. They are distinguished by the outer layer of flesh (exoperidium) that at maturity splits open in a star-shape manner to reveal a round spore sac. Additionally, they have a strongly hygroscopic character—the rays will open when moist, but when hot and dry will close to protect the spore sac. Species of Astraeus grow on the ground in ectomycorrhizal associations with trees and shrubs. Despite their similar appearance to the Geastrum earthstars, the species of Astraeus are not closely related.
Geastrum triplex is a fungus found in the detritus and leaf litter of hardwood forests around the world. It is commonly known as the collared earthstar, the saucered earthstar, or the triple earthstar—and less commonly by the alternative species name Geastrum indicum. It is the largest member of the genus Geastrum and expanded mature specimens can reach a tip-to-tip length of up to 12 centimeters.
Calbovista is a fungal genus containing the single species Calbovista subsculpta, commonly known as the sculptured puffball, sculptured giant puffball, and warted giant puffball. It is a common puffball of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast ranges of western North America. The puffball is more or less round with a diameter of up to 15 cm (6 in), white becoming brownish in age, and covered with shallow pyramid-shaped plates or scales. It fruits singly or in groups along roads and in open woods at high elevations, from summer to autumn.
Aureoboletus mirabilis, commonly known as the admirable bolete, the bragger's bolete, and the velvet top, is an edible species of fungus in the Boletaceae mushroom family. The fruit body has several characteristics with which it may be identified: a dark reddish-brown cap; yellow to greenish-yellow pores on the undersurface of the cap; and a reddish-brown stem with long narrow reticulations. Aureoboletus mirabilis is found in coniferous forests along the Pacific Coast of North America, and in Asia. Unusual for boletes, A. mirabilis sometimes appears to fruit on the wood or woody debris of Hemlock trees, suggesting a saprobic lifestyle. Despite the occasional appearances to the contrary, Aureoboletus mirabilis is mycorrhizal, and forms a close association with the tree's roots.
Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae. First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century, it is commonly known as the stubby-stalk or the short-stemmed slippery Jack. The fruit bodies (mushrooms) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish-brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime, and a short whitish stipe that has neither a partial veil nor prominent, colored glandular dots. The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm, while the stipe is up to 6 cm long and 2 cm thick. Like other bolete mushrooms, S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap.
Mutinus elegans, commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn, the dog stinkhorn, the headless stinkhorn, or the devil's dipstick, is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae (stinkhorn) family. The fruit body begins its development in an "egg" form, resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground. As the fungus matures, a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip. The stalk is covered with a foul-smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length. Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores, assisting in their dispersal.
The gasteroid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota. Species were formerly placed in the obsolete class Gasteromycetes Fr., or the equally obsolete order Gasteromycetales Rea, because they produce spores inside their basidiocarps rather than on an outer surface. However, the class is polyphyletic, as such species—which include puffballs, earthballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, bird's nest fungi, and false truffles—are not closely related to each other. Because they are often studied as a group, it has been convenient to retain the informal (non-taxonomic) name of "gasteroid fungi".
Spongiforma is a genus of sponge-like fungi in the family Boletaceae. Newly described in 2009, the genus contains two species: S. thailandica and S. squarepantsii. The type species S. thailandica is known only from Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand, where it grows in soil in old-growth forests dominated by dipterocarp trees. The rubbery fruit bodies, which has a strong odour of coal-tar similar to Tricholoma sulphureum, consists of numerous internal cavities lined with spore-producing tissue. S. squarepantsii, described as new to science in 2011, is found in Malaysia. It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies with a fruity or musky odour. These fruit bodies will—like a sponge—resume their original shape if water is squeezed out. The origin of the specific name derives from its perceived resemblance to the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants. Apart from differences in distribution, S. squarepantsii differs from S. thailandica in its colour, odour, and spore structure.
Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales. Circumscribed in 2002 by mycologists Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky, it contains nine genera and about 80 species. The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies, including boletes, gasteroid forms, earthstars, and puffballs. Most species are ectomycorrhizal, although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty. The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous (145–66 Ma) in Asia and North America, and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic (66–0 Ma).
Harrya chromapes, commonly known as the yellowfoot bolete or the chrome-footed bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The bolete is found in eastern North America, Costa Rica, and eastern Asia, where it grows on the ground, in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous and coniferous trees. Fruit bodies have smooth, rose-pink caps that are initially convex before flattening out. The pores on the cap undersurface are white, aging to a pale pink as the spores mature. The thick stipe has fine pink or reddish dots (scabers), and is white to pinkish but with a bright yellow base. The mushrooms are edible but are popular with insects, and so they are often infested with maggots.
Boletinellus monticola, previously known as Gyrodon monticola, is a bolete fungus in the Boletinellaceae family with a pored hymenium rather than gills. This species can be identified by its common ectomycorrhizal association and therefore close proximity to Alder trees. B. monticola is most commonly found near the equator, specifically in Southern Mexico and stretching into northern South America.
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