Calostoma

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Calostoma
Calostoma cinnabarina.jpg
Calostoma cinnabarinum
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Sclerodermataceae
Genus: Calostoma
Desv. (1809)
Type species
Calostoma cinnabarinum
Corda (1809)
Synonyms [1]

Calostoma is a genus of 29 species of gasteroid fungi in the suborder Sclerodermatineae. Like other gasteroid fungi, Calostoma do not have the spore discharge mechanism associated with typical gilled fungi (ballistospory), and instead have enclosed spore-bearing structures. Resembling round puffballs with raised, brightly colored spore openings (ostioles), elevated on a thick, gelatinous stalks, species have been collected in regions of deciduous, temperate, tropical or subtropical forests. Their distribution includes eastern North America, Central America, Asia, and Australasia. The common name given to some species, "prettymouth", alludes to the brightly colored raised openings (ostioles) that may somewhat resemble lips. Other common names include "hotlips" and "puffball in aspic".

Contents

The unusual fruit body structure has historically led mycologists to suggest various classification schemes based on presumed relationships to other puffball or "stomach mushrooms". Phylogenetic analyses performed in the 2000s show the genus to be evolutionarily related to the Bolete mushrooms. Calostoma species are ectomycorrhizal, forming symbiotic associations with trees from various families. The type species, Calostoma cinnabarinum , is ectomycorrhizal with oak.

Taxonomy

The original genus description, based on the type species Calostoma cinnabarinum (synonymous with cinnabarina), [2] was published by French botanist Nicaise Auguste Desvaux in 1809. [3] Before the advent of modern genetic analysis, the Calostoma was considered to be part of the Gasteromycetes, a grouping of fungi with enclosed spore-bearing structures. Specifically, it was classified in the order of stalked puffballs, [4] although some mycologists have suggested that the genus Calostoma should be merged with Tulostoma [5] (xerophilic stalked puffballs), Scleroderma [6] (hard puffballs), Geastrum [7] (earthstars), or Pseudocolus [8] (stinkhorns). Some authors have placed Calostoma in its own family, the Calostomataceae. [9] [10] [11]

In the 2000s, a phylogenetic analyses using nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal gene sequences helped to clarify the phylogeny of Calostoma. Using the species C. cinnabarinum and C. ravenelli as representative examples, the research showed the genus to be evolutionarily part of the monophyletic Boletales clade, and separate from clades containing most of the gilled mushrooms, puffballs, stalked puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns and non-bolete Gasteromycetes. [12] Calostoma belongs to the suborder Sclerodermatineae within the Boletales. The suborder comprises the following genera: Boletinellus , Calostoma, Gyroporus , Phlebopus , Pisolithus , Scleroderma , and Veligaster . [13] Calostoma is thought to have diverged evolutionarily from other Boletales taxa between 52 and 115 million years ago. [12] The most recent age estimates suggest Calostoma diverged from the most recent common ancestor in the "Core Sclerodermatineae" at a median age of 66.02 million years ago (highest posterior density range 49.27-90.28 million years ago). The median age of the most recent common ancestor for extant Calostoma is 42.73 million years ago (highest posterior density range 28.76-57.15 million years ago). [14]

The genus name Calostoma is derived from the Greek kallos or "beauty", and stoma (στóμα) or "mouth"; similarly, several species are referred to in the vernacular as "prettymouths". In Korea, it is called Yongi, or "red cheeks". [15]

Description

The outer tissue layer of Calostoma cinnabarinum (shown) is gelatinous. Calostoma cinnabarina 18252 crop.jpg
The outer tissue layer of Calostoma cinnabarinum (shown) is gelatinous.

Fruit bodies, technically known as gasterocarps, form spherical spore-bearing heads with a peridium (outer tissue layer) made of two to four clearly defined layers of tissue. The outermost peridial layer is a thick gelatinous or shiny cuticle, which during maturity peels away to reveal the brightly colored peristome that has a star-shaped pore through which spores may escape. The innermost layer of the peridium is papery and membranous, and remains attached to the outer layers only at the apex of the star-shaped apical pore or slit. The fruit bodies may either have no stalk (sessile), or be atop a stalk. The stalk, made of thick, intertwined and fused cords of hyphae, is hygroscopic, and will expand upon absorbing moisture. [12] The spore mass in the head, the gleba, is pale, and initially has thick-walled skeletal hyphae called capillitia. Clamp connections are present in the fungal hyphae. [4]

Spores

The spores are spherical to elliptical in shape, and typically have surfaces that are reticulate (with interconnected grooves resembling a net) or pitted. [9] The variations in the elaborate pitted-spore reticulations have inspired investigation with techniques such as scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The latter technique was used to distinguish subtle details (at the nanometer scale) and differences in the fine structure of the spores of various Calostoma species. [15] The spore reticulations have purpose: they become entangled and interwoven with nurse cells and scaly hyphae, the net effect of which is to prevent the spores from being blown away simultaneously. [16]

Development

When grown in humid conditions, such as might typically be found in a temperate deciduous forest, Calostoma species develop a thicker, more gelatinous exoperidium (the outermost peridial layer). As the stalk expands, the exoperidium becomes sloughed off, exposing the endoperidium and a raised peristome—the ridge of tissue around the opening suggestive of the common name, "prettymouth". [17] The exoperidium may help to protect the maturing gleba of late-fruiting species from harmful variations in temperature or humidity, or from insect predation. [9]

Habitat and distribution

The species in Calostoma have been collected in regions of deciduous, temperate, tropical or subtropical forests, containing tree species from the families Fagaceae, Nothofagaceae, Myrtaceae, and Dipterocarpaceae. The type species C. cinnabarinum was shown to form ectomycorrhizae with Quercus species, using isotopic labeling, molecular and morphological analyses. [18] Southeast Asian Calostoma have also been described as ectomycorrhizal. Calostoma sarasinii forms ectomycorrhizae with species of Lithocarpus (Fagaceae) while Calostoma retisporum forms ectomycorrhizae with species from the Myrtaceae. [14] The ectomycorrhizal mode of nutrition is predominant in the Sclerodermatineae suborder. Historically, it had been assumed to be saprobic, due to its taxonomic uncertainty, and presumed relatedness to other saprobic fungi like the stalked puffballs and the earthstars. [9] [19]

The distribution of the genus is limited to Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea), Southeast Asia, Asia, and North and Central America. Species have been described from Indonesia (Borneo, Java, Sumatra, New Guinea), Sri Lanka, Himalaya, Nepal, China, New Zealand, North America, and Latin America. [17] Australian species include C. fuhreri, C. fuscum , C. insigne, C. rodwayi, and C. viride. [20] David Arora mentions a preference for humid forests in eastern North America, particularly in the southern Appalachian Mountains. [21]

Uses

Edibility

In general, Calostoma species are not considered edible; because they typically begin their development underground, by the time fruit bodies appear they are too tough for consumption. [21] However, a 2009 study reported that in the community of Tenango de Doria (Hidalgo state, Mexico), Calostoma cinnabarinum used to be collected by children and consumed "like a tidbit", although the tradition seems to have been abandoned in recent years. Locals called the young fruit bodies "yemitas"or “little yolks”. [22]

Biochemistry

Calostoma cinnabarinum contains a pigment named calostomal that is responsible for its red color. The IUPAC name of this molecule is all-trans-16-oxohexadeca-2,4,6,8,10,12,14-heptaenoic acid. [23]

Species list

The following species list is compiled from Index Fungorum [24] as well as species published in the literature, but missing in Fungorum, specifically C. formosanum, C. junghuhnii, and C. sarasinii. The name listed under the species binomial is the authority—the author of the original description of that species, followed by the year of publication.

Calostoma fuscum Calostoma fuscum.jpg
Calostoma fuscum
Calostoma cinnabarinum showing peristome and exposed gleba Calostoma cinnabarina3.jpg
Calostoma cinnabarinum showing peristome and exposed gleba
Calostoma species tentatively identified as C. rodwayi Calostoma rodwayi 41415.jpg
Calostoma species tentatively identified as C. rodwayi
Calostoma japonica Calostoma japonica DSCN0514 a.jpg
Calostoma japonica
Binomial
Authority		YearDistributionNotes
C. aeruginosum
Massee		1891
C. berkeleyi
Massee		1888On the islands south of Sri Lanka [7]
C. brookei
L. Fan & B. Liu		1995In a Malaysian forest [25]
C. cinnabarinum
Corda 		1809China, [26] Colombia, [27] Costa Rica, [28] India, [29] Mexico, [17] [30] Taiwan, [31] and the United States [5] [11]
C. formosanum
Sawada		1931AsiaThis is a form of C. junghuhnii with a very short rooting stem. [32]
C. fuhreri
Crichton & J.H. Willis [33] 		1986In damp depressions on sand ridges in Victoria, AustraliaIt has dark grey to brown fruit bodies made of a short gelatinous stalk, up to 2 cm (0.8 in) long, and a spherical head up to 0.8 cm (0.3 in) wide. The outer layer of the peridium does not fall off in one piece (as in C. fuscum) but persists as small black granules. The spores are elliptical, white, and smooth-walled, with dimensions of 22–25 by 10–11.5  μm. [34]
C. fuscum
(Berk.) Massee		1888 Tasmania and south Australia [7]
C. guizhouense
B. Liu & S.Z. Jiang		1985In a montane forest in Guizhou, China [35]
C. hunanense
B. Liu & Y.B. Peng		1979In the soil in the woods of Hunan, China [36]
C. insigne
(Berk.) Massee		1888Sri Lanka [7]
C. japonica
Henn.		1902Japan [37]
C. jiangii
B. Liu & Yin H. Liu		1985In a montane forest, in Guizhou, China [36]
C. junghuhnii
(Schlect. & Müll.) Massee		Collected in the Himalayas, [7] southeast Tibet and Bhutan, [38] several times in Nepal, [39] [40] [41] Japan, [37] and Taiwan. [31] Originally described as Mitremyces junghuhnii by Schlechtendal and Müller in 1844, this species was discovered in 1842 on an expedition to collect biota in the forest of Batta-Lauder, near Tapoilang, Java. [42] It has bright orange to red fruit bodies made of a stalk 1.5 to 2.5 cm (0.6 to 1.0 in) long and 1.5 to 2.0 cm (0.6 to 0.8 in) thick. The spores are spherical, covered with rounded to pyramid-shaped warts 1–2 μm long, with diameters of 12.5–15  μm; the spore surface ornamentation appears to be unique in the genus. [43]
C. luridum
(Berk.) Massee		1888Near the Swan river in western Australia [7]
C. lutescens
(Schw.) Burnap		North AmericaThis species is commonly known as the "lattice puffball". [44]
C. miniata
M. Zang		1987Growing with moss in Sichuan, China [36]
C. naaxtututsDeloya-Olvera, Virgen-Vasquez, Xoconostle-Cázares & J. Pérez-Moreno2023Southern Mexico [45]
C. oriruber
Massee		1888 Larut, Perak, and the Malay Peninsula [7]
C. pengii
B. Liu & Yin H. Liu		1984In a forest in Hunan, China [36]
C. ravenelii
(Berk.) Massee		1888In the mountains of South Carolina, [7] and Japan [46] [47]
C. ravenelii var. microsporum(G.F. Atk.) Castro-Mend. & O.K. Mill. (1983)This variant was first described by George Atkinson in 1903, who noticed a close resemblance to C. ravenelii, but believed that an often longer stalk and smaller, oblong spores (measuring 6–9 by 3.5–4.5 μm) were sufficient to warrant naming it a new species. [48]
C. ravenelii var. ravenelii(Berk.) Massee1988
C. retisporum
Boedijn		1938
C. rodwayi
Lloyd [49] 		1925
C. sarasinii1969 Singapore [50]
C. singaporense
L. Fan & B. Liu		1995Singapore [51]
C. tooteicDeloya-Olvera, Virgen-Vasquez, Xoconostle-Cázares & J. Pérez-Moreno2023Southern Mexico [45]
C. variispora
B. Liu, Z.Y. Li & Du		1975ChinaCharacterized by its variable sized elliptical spores, which range from 9–18.9 by 5.7–8.6 μm. [52]
C. viride
(Berk.) Massee		1988 Tonglu and Sinchal, in the Sikkim Himalayas at an elevation of 7,000–9,000 feet (2,100–2,700 m) [7]
C. yunnanense
L.J. Li & B. Liu		1984 Yunnan, China [53]
C. zanchianum
(Rick) Baseia & Calonge		2006First studied by Brazilian mycologist Johann Rick, the species was published posthumously, 15 years after his death in 1946. [54] Initially named Myremyces zanchianus, only a single specimen is known. [55] The species has an egg-shaped head, 1.3 cm (0.5 in) long by 1 cm (0.4 in) wide, atop a stalk. The "mouth" is star-shaped and made of 4 long slits that open at maturity. The spores are 30–35 by 15–20 μm, spindle-shaped to elliptical, smooth, and have a prominent longitudinal groove. [55]

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Limnoperdon is a fungal genus in the monotypic family Limnoperdaceae. The genus is also monotypic, as it contains a single species, the aquatic fungus Limnoperdon incarnatum. The species, described as new to science in 1976, produces fruit bodies that lack specialized structures such as a stem, cap and gills common in mushrooms. Rather, the fruit bodies—described as aquatic or floating puffballs—are small balls of loosely interwoven hyphae. The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs. Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body, based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture, suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures. Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae, then become cup-shaped, and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores. Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington, the fungus has since been collected in Japan, South Africa, and Canada.

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Lycoperdon echinatum, commonly known as the spiny puffball or the spring puffball, is a type of puffball mushroom in the family Agaricaceae. The saprobic species has been found in Africa, Europe, Central America, and North America, where it grows on soil in deciduous woods, glades, and pastures. It has been proposed that North American specimens be considered a separate species, Lycoperdon americanum, but this suggestion has not been followed by most authors. Molecular analysis indicates that L. echinatum is closely related to the puffball genus Handkea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gasteroid fungi</span> Group of fungi

The gasteroid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota. Species were formerly placed in the obsolete class Gasteromycetes Fr., or the equally obsolete order Gasteromycetales Rea, because they produce spores inside their basidiocarps rather than on an outer surface. However, the class is polyphyletic, as such species—which include puffballs, earthballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, bird's nest fungi, and false truffles—are not closely related to each other. Because they are often studied as a group, it has been convenient to retain the informal (non-taxonomic) name of "gasteroid fungi".

<i>Geastrum quadrifidum</i> Species of fungus in the family Geastraceaea

Geastrum quadrifidum, commonly known as the rayed earthstar or four-footed earthstar, is an inedible species of mushroom belonging to the genus Geastrum, or earthstar fungi. First described scientifically by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1794, G. quadrifidum is a cosmopolitan—but not common—species of Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Australasia. The fungus is a saprobe, feeding off decomposing organic matter present in the soil and litter of coniferous forests.

<i>Calostoma cinnabarinum</i> Species of fungus

Calostoma cinnabarinum, commonly known as the stalked puffball-in-aspic,gelatinous stalked-puffball, or red slimy-stalked puffball, is a species of gasteroid fungus in the family Sclerodermataceae, and is the type species of the genus Calostoma. The fruit body has a distinctive color and overall appearance, featuring a layer of yellowish jelly surrounding a bright red, spherical head approximately 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in diameter atop a red or yellowish brown spongy stipe 1.5 to 4 cm tall. The innermost layer of the head is the gleba, containing clear or slightly yellowish elliptical spores, measuring 14–20 micrometers (μm) long by 6–9 μm across. The spore surface features a pattern of small pits, producing a net-like appearance. A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, Central America, northeastern South America, and East Asia. C. cinnabarinum grows on the ground in deciduous forests, where it forms mycorrhizal associations with oaks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sclerodermatineae</span> Suborder of the fungal order Boletales

Sclerodermatineae is a suborder of the fungal order Boletales. Circumscribed in 2002 by mycologists Manfred Binder and Andreas Bresinsky, it contains nine genera and about 80 species. The suborder contains a diverse assemblage fruit body morphologies, including boletes, gasteroid forms, earthstars, and puffballs. Most species are ectomycorrhizal, although the ecological role of some species is not known with certainty. The suborder is thought to have originated in the late Cretaceous (145–66 Ma) in Asia and North America, and the major genera diversified around the mid Cenozoic (66–0 Ma).

References

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  2. ↑ Kuo M. "Calostoma cinnabarina (MushroomExpert.Com)". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2009-08-05.
  3. ↑ Desvaux NA. (1809). "Observations sur quelques genres à établir dans la famille dês Champignons". Journal de Botanique (in French). 2: 88–105.
  4. 1 2 Sussman AS. (1973). Fungi: An Advanced Treatise; Part B. London, UK: Academic Pr. ISBN   0-12-045644-3.
  5. 1 2 Burnap CE. (1897). "Contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory of Harvard University XXXVIII: Notes on the genus Calostoma". Botanical Gazette. 23 (3): 180–96. doi:10.1086/327486. S2CID   84236489.
  6. ↑ Fischer E. (1884). "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Gasteromyceten". Botanischer Zeitung (Regensberg). 42: 433–94.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Massee G. (1888). "A monograph of the genus Calostoma Desv. (Mitremyces Nees)". Annals of Botany. 2: 25–46. doi:10.1093/aob/os-2.1.25.
  8. ↑ de Bary A. (1887). Fungi, mycetozoa and bacteria, English edition. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Miller HR, Miller OK (1988). Gasteromycetes: Morphological and Developmental Features, with Keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. ISBN   0-916422-74-7.
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