Cocaine and society

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Large-scale biosynthesis of cocaine is unexplored; [1] Both the pharmaceutical supply chain and the illicit supply chain obtain cocaine from coca cultivated in Latin America, but they operate under very different controls and oversight. In Peru, for example, legal coca cultivation is monopolized by the state company National Coca Company (ENACO), yet approximately 90% of coca leaves produced in the country are diverted to illegal actors for cocaine manufacturing. [2] As a result, these illicit coca crops are a primary target of ongoing government-led coca eradication efforts. [3]

Contents

Illicit market

Use and culture

Street names

Cocaine is sometimes referred to on the street as blow, coca, coke, crank, flake, snow, or soda cot. Slang terms for free base cocaine include crack or rock. [4]

Media

Scientific evidence for a direct link between cocaine use and violent behavior is limited; media bias and misconceptions in popular reporting may have contributed to this association, which is more likely explained by factors such as cocaine use disorder or personality disorders. [5]

Prevalence

List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use.jpg
List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use

World annual cocaine consumption, as of 2000, stood at around 600 tonnes, with the United States consuming around 300 t, 50% of the total, Europe about 150 t, 25% of the total, and the rest of the world the remaining 150 t or 25%. [6] It is estimated that 1.5 million people in the United States used cocaine in 2010, down from 2.4 million in 2006. [7] Conversely, cocaine use appears to be increasing[ when? ] in Europe with the highest prevalences in Spain, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Ireland. [7]

The 2010 UN World Drug Report concluded that "it appears that the North American cocaine market has declined in value from US$47 billion in 1998 to US$38 billion in 2008. Between 2006 and 2008, the value of the market remained basically stable". [8]

Global estimates of drug users in 2016
(in millions of users) [9]
SubstanceBest
estimate		Low
estimate		High
estimate
Amphetamine-
type stimulants 		34.1613.4255.24
Cannabis 192.15165.76234.06
Cocaine 18.2013.8722.85
Ecstasy 20.578.9932.34
Opiates 19.3813.8026.15
Opioids 34.2627.0144.54

According to a 2016 United Nations report, England and Wales are the countries with the highest rate of cocaine usage (2.4% of adults in the previous year). [10] Other countries where the usage rate meets or exceeds 1.5% are Spain and Scotland (2.2%), the United States (2.1%), Australia (2.1%), Uruguay (1.8%), Brazil (1.75%), Chile (1.73%), the Netherlands (1.5%) and Ireland (1.5%). [10]

Australia

Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in Australia (behind cannabis). Since the mid-1990s, overall cocaine usage in Australia has been on the rise, but usage rates and attitudes tend to vary between states.

Europe

Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in Europe (behind cannabis). Since the mid-1990s, overall cocaine usage in Europe has been on the rise, but usage rates and attitudes tend to vary between countries.

Prevalence estimates for the general population: age ranges are 18–64 and 18–34 for Germany, Greece, France, Italy and Hungary; 16–64 and 16–34 for Denmark, Estonia and Norway; 18–65 for Malta; 17–34 for Sweden. Cocaine use in the general population is highest—ranging from 4.2% to 5.5%—in Denmark, Norway, Ireland, the Netherlands, in that order. [11]

South America

It is not widely recognized that South America is the world's third largest market for cocaine use, with approximately 1,981,000 users as of 2004/5. The prevalence rate among people aged 15–64 stands at 0.7%, which is on par with Europe but significantly lower than North America's 2.3%. In the main coca-producing countries, cocaine use rates are at or above the regional average, underscoring a strong connection between illicit crop cultivation, cocaine production, and local abuse. In Bolivia, where cocaine use is well above the Latin American average, annual prevalence rates have mirrored domestic production trends: after substantial increases in the early 1990s until 1996, rates declined, then began rising again from 2000 to 2005, reaching 1.6% for cocaine hydrochloride and 1.9% for cocaine base in 2005. [12]

United States

Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the United States (behind cannabis) [13] and the U.S. is the world's largest consumer of cocaine. [14] Its users span over different ages, races, and professions. In the 1970s and 1980s, the drug became particularly popular in the disco culture as cocaine usage was very common and popular in many discos such as Studio 54.

Use in sports

Cocaine is prohibited for use "in-competition" by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which classifies it as an S6 stimulant and a "Substance of Abuse" on its International Standard for the Prohibited List. [15] : 6  Athletes who test positive for cocaine in competition may face disciplinary measures, though special consideration is given if use occurred out-of-competition and unrelated to performance.

Harm reduction

Narcan (naloxone) nasal spray Narcan product.jpg
Narcan (naloxone) nasal spray

Experts recommend that anyone using stimulants such as cocaine or MDMA, as well as those around them, carry naloxone due to the growing risk of opioid contamination in the drug supply. Having naloxone available can help prevent fatal overdoses, even when opioids weren't intentionally used. [16] Nasal spray formulations of naloxone are specifically recommended, as they are legal in many regions, easy to carry, and can be administered by anyone, not just medical professionals. The World Health Organization (WHO) includes naloxone on their "List of Essential Medicines", and recommends its availability and utilization for the reversal of opioid overdoses. [17] [18] In the United States, some nasal naloxone are legally available without a prescription. [19] [20]

Harm reduction efforts for cocaine use focus on reducing health risks associated with methods like cocaine injection and smoking crack cocaine. These include providing clean needles and crack cocaine paraphernalia, promoting safer consumption practices, and offering drug-checking services to detect dangerous contaminants such as fentanyl. Such strategies aim to minimize overdose risk and disease transmission while supporting users' health and access to treatment, forming an essential part of modern drug policy.

Reagent testing

Reagent testing kits are widely used to identify the presence of cocaine and its common adulterants. The Scott reagent is specifically designed as a presumptive test for cocaine. [21] Morris reagent, which is derived from the Scott reagent, is also used as a presumptive test for cocaine. The Liebermann and Mandelin reagents are commonly used to test for both cocaine, [22] [23] and levamisole, which is a frequent cutting agent found in street cocaine. [24]

Each reagent provides different color indications for various substances. Since adulteration of cocaine with levamisole is widespread, the color reactions produced by these reagents often reflect the presence of both substances. The resulting mixed color can complicate interpretation, making further analysis or additional testing necessary to clarify the sample's composition.

DanceSafe recommends starting with Morris reagent to identify cocaine. A bright blue color means cocaine is present. Next, use Marquis reagent—no color change or light pink is normal, but orange may indicate amphetamines, so use a test strip if needed. Finally, test a fresh sample with Liebermann; yellow means pure cocaine, while rusty red suggests levamisole or lidocaine. [25]

Illicit supply chain

According to a 2006 report by the UNODC, 99% of all global illicit cocaine is sourced from coca plantations in the Andes of South America—primarily in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. [12] While most coca cultivation remains concentrated in South America, recent years have seen rapid expansion into northern Central America, specifically in Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize. [26] [27] [28] [29]

As a result, the global cocaine trade operates through a distinct illicit supply chain shaped by geography and economics. Production begins in Latin America, where coca plants are cultivated and processed through several chemical stages: first into a crude extract known as cocaine paste, then into coca base, and finally refined into cocaine hydrochloride. Occasionally, cocaine is adulterated with levamisole prior to shipment, both to increase bulk and to maximize profits for traffickers. [30] The drug is then trafficked-often across international borders-using a variety of smuggling routes and methods.

Although most cocaine paste and base are processed further in the source countries, some traffickers smuggle cocaine hydrochloride or cocaine paste by chemically concealing it in materials such as plastics and liquids, which makes detection difficult. A sophisticated example is "black cocaine," in which cocaine is mixed with carbon. In such cases, once the cocaine has reached its destination hub, it is transported to large, dedicated laboratories for secondary extraction and subsequent refinement into cocaine hydrochloride—converted from cocaine base if the shipment arrives as cocaine paste. Several such facilities are detected in Europe each year. [31] [32]

After reaching the destination hub and, if necessary, being refined, cocaine hydrochloride is typically distributed in bulk for wholesale markets in consumer countries. After reaching these countries, cocaine enters distribution networks, where it is broken down into smaller quantities for local markets. Before reaching end users, the product is frequently adulterated, or "laced," most commonly with the toxic stimulant levamisole to increase profits; [24] in some cases, counterfeit cocaine—substances sold as cocaine but containing little or no actual cocaine—is also distributed. [33]

Organization

Since the 1980s, the cocaine trade was dominated by centralized, hierarchical drug cartels such as Medellín and Cali, along with their successors and early FARC factions. By the early 2000s, this model fragmented into a diverse network of global trafficking links, allowing South American cocaine production to easily supply markets in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Oceania through various routes. [34]

Violence linked to the cocaine trade continues to affect Latin America and the Caribbean and is expanding into Western Europe, Asia, and Africa as transnational organized crime groups compete globally, according to the World Drug Report 2025. [35] [36]

Recent research in 2025 indicates the global cocaine trade is shifting from violent, hierarchical cartels to professional, decentralized networks focused on logistics and cross-border collaboration. Violence remains but is now used more strategically and locally rather than as the primary means of control. [34]

Production

Cocaine powder is often placed into molds and then compressed-often with hydraulic presses-to create dense, solid bricks, which are sometimes branded to serve as identifiers Drugpackscorpion.png
Cocaine powder is often placed into molds and then compressed-often with hydraulic presses-to create dense, solid bricks, which are sometimes branded to serve as identifiers

Colombia is as of 2019 the world's largest cocaine producer, with production more than tripling since 2013. [37] [38] Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine has been produced in Colombia, both from cocaine base imported from Peru (primarily the Huallaga Valley) and Bolivia and from locally grown coca. There was a 28% increase in the amount of potentially harvestable coca plants which were grown in Colombia in 1998. This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mid-1990s. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. [39]

Estimated Andean region coca cultivation and potential pure cocaine production [40]
20002001200220032004
Net cultivation km2 (sq mi)1,875 (724)2,218 (856)2,007.5 (775.1)1,663 (642)1,662 (642)
Potential pure cocaine production (tonnes)770925830680645

The latest estimate provided by the U.S. authorities on the annual production of cocaine in Colombia refers to 290 metric tons. As of the end of 2011, the seizure operations of Colombian cocaine carried out in different countries have totaled 351.8 metric tons of cocaine, i.e. 121.3% of Colombia's annual production according to the U.S. Department of State's estimates. [41] [42]

Overview

In 1991, the United States Department of Justice released a report detailing the typical process in which leaves from coca plants were ultimately converted into cocaine hydrochloride by Latin American drug cartels: [43]

  • the exact species of coca to be planted was determined by the location of its cultivation, with Erythroxylum coca being grown in tropical high altitude climates of the eastern Andes in Peru and Bolivia, while Erythroxylum novogranatense was favoured in drier lowland areas of Colombia [43]
  • the average cocaine alkaloid content of a sample of coca leaf varied between 0.1 and 0.8 percent, with coca from higher altitudes containing the largest percentages of cocaine alkaloids [43]
  • the typical farmer will plant coca on a sloping hill so rainfall will not drown the plants as they reach full maturity over 12 to 24 months after being planted [43]
  • the main harvest of coca leaves takes place after the traditional wet season in March, with additional harvesting also taking place in July and November [43]
  • the leaves are then taken to a flat area and spread out on tarpaulins to dry in the hot sun for approximately 6 hours, and afterwards placed in 25 lb (11 kg) sacks to be transported to market or to a cocaine processing facility depending on location [43]
  • in the early 1990s, Peru and Bolivia were the main locations for converting coca leaf to coca paste and cocaine base, while Colombia was the primary location for the final conversion for these products into cocaine hydrochloride [43]
  • the conversion of coca leaf into coca paste was typically done very close to the coca fields to minimize the need to transport the coca leaves, with a plastic lined pit in the ground used as a "pozo" [43]
  • the leaves are added to the pozo along with fresh water from a nearby river, along with kerosene and sodium carbonate, then a team of several people will repeatedly stomp on the mixture in their bare feet for several hours to help turn the leaves into paste [43]
  • the cocaine alkaloids and kerosene eventually separate from the water and coca leaves, which are then drained off / scooped out of the mixture [43]
  • the cocaine alkaloids are then extracted from the kerosene and added into a dilute acidic solution, to which more sodium carbonate is added to cause a precipitate to form [43]
  • the acid and water are afterwards drained off and the precipitate is filtered and dried to produce an off-white putty-like substance, which is coca paste ready for transportation to cocaine base processing facility [43]
  • at the processing facility, coca paste is dissolved in a mixture of sulfuric acid and water, to which potassium permanganate is then added and the solution is left to stand for 6 hours to allow the unwanted alkaloids to break down [43]
  • the solution is then filtered and the precipitate is discarded, after which ammonia water is added and another precipitate is formed [43]
  • when the solution has finished reacting the liquid is drained, then the remaining precipitate is dried under heating lamps, and resulting powder is cocaine base ready for transfer to a cocaine hydrochloride laboratory [43]
  • at the laboratory, acetone is added to the cocaine base and after it has dissolved the solution is filtered to remove undesired material [43]
  • hydrochloric acid diluted in ether is added to the solution, which causes the cocaine to precipitate out of the solution as cocaine hydrochloride crystals [43]
  • the cocaine hydrochloride crystals are finally dried under lamps or in microwave ovens, then pressed into 1 kg (2.2 lb) blocks and wrapped in plastic ready for export [43]
Illegal coca cultivation
Women gathering leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) in Bolivia. Wood engraving, c. 1867 Women gathering leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) Wellcome V0043210.jpg
Women gathering leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylum coca) in Bolivia. Wood engraving, c. 1867

The cultivation of coca has become an attractive economic decision for many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, the spread of new strains of the coca plant due to persistent worldwide demand. [44] [45]

Coca eradication through the use of defoliants has devastated parts of the farming economy in some coca-growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. Although production fell temporarily, coca crops rebounded in numerous smaller fields in Colombia, rather than the larger plantations. [46] [47]

South America

Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lower altitudes of the eastern slopes of the Andes (the Yungas), or the highlands depending on the species grown. Coca production begins in the valleys and upper jungle regions of the Andean region, where the countries of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia [48] [49] are host to more than 98 percent of the global land area planted with coca. [50]

Central America

In 2014, coca plantations were discovered in Mexico, [51] [52] and in 2020 in Honduras, [53] which could have major implications for the illegal cultivation of the plant.

Since then coca production in Central America has surged dramatically. In 2022, authorities destroyed over 6.5 million coca plants in Honduras, 4 million in Guatemala, and more than half a million in southern Belize. By 2024, the number of coca plantations found and eradicated in Honduras had nearly doubled compared to the previous year, and a record number of processing labs were dismantled across the region. Unlike the Andes, where small farmers typically grow coca, cultivation in Central America is controlled by organized crime groups with backing from major foreign cartels. [27] [54] [29] A 2024 study found that coca cultivation suitability increased most in northern Central America, particularly in Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador (collectively known as the Northern Triangle of Central America), and Belize. The study also reported that 47% of northern Central America—limited to Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize—has biophysical characteristics highly suitable for coca growing, suggesting that environmental factors are unlikely to limit the crop's spread in those countries. The latitudinal and altitudinal gradients of these countries are especially analogous to the altitudinal diversity of Colombia's coca cultivation zones, though their soils tend to fall near the upper limit of what is considered suitable for coca in Colombia. [55]

Cocaine paste
A cache of precursor chemicals near a South American cocaine processing lab Precursor chemicals.gif
A cache of precursor chemicals near a South American cocaine processing lab

In traditional cocaine production, solvents are key precursor chemicals used to extract and process cocaine from coca plant leaves. The process typically involves:

Cocaine paste (paco, basuco, oxi, pasta) is a crude extract of the coca leaf which contains 40% to 91% cocaine freebase along with companion coca alkaloids and varying quantities of benzoic acid, methanol, and kerosene. In South America, coca paste—also known as cocaine base and often confused with cocaine sulfate in North America—is relatively inexpensive and widely used by working class consumers. The coca paste is smoked in tobacco or cannabis cigarettes and use has become widespread in several Latin American countries. Traditionally, coca paste has been relatively abundant in South American countries such as Colombia where it is processed into cocaine hydrochloride ("street cocaine") for distribution to the rest of the world. [58] The caustic reactions associated with the local application of coca paste prevents its use by oral, intranasal, mucosal, or injection routes. Coca paste can only be smoked when combined with a combustible material such as tobacco or cannabis. [59]

An interview with a coca farmer published in 2003 described a mode of production by acid-base extraction that has changed little since 1905. Roughly 625 pounds (283 kg) of leaves were harvested per hectare, six times per year. The leaves were dried for half a day, then chopped into small pieces with a string trimmer and sprinkled with a small amount of powdered cement (replacing sodium carbonate from former times). Several hundred pounds of this mixture were soaked in 50 US gallons (190 L) of gasoline for a day, then the gasoline was removed and the leaves were pressed for the remaining liquid, after which they could be discarded. Then battery acid (weak sulfuric acid) was used, one bucket per 55 lb (25 kg) of leaves, to create a phase separation in which the cocaine free base in the gasoline was acidified and extracted into a few buckets of "murky-looking smelly liquid". Once powdered caustic soda was added to this, the cocaine precipitated and could be removed by filtration through a cloth. The resulting material, when dried, was termed pasta and sold by the farmer. The 3,750 pounds (1,700 kg) yearly harvest of leaves from a hectare produced 6 lb (2.5 kg) of pasta, approximately 40–60% cocaine. Repeated recrystallization from solvents, producing pasta lavada and eventually crystalline cocaine were performed at specialized laboratories after the sale. [60]

Trafficking

A map showing how cocaine travels from producers to consumers internationally. Global-cocaine-flows-WDR2010.jpg
A map showing how cocaine travels from producers to consumers internationally.

Organized criminal gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in South America, particularly in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the world's largest consumer of cocaine, [14] where it is sold at huge markups; usually in the US at $80–120 for 1 gram, and $250–300 for 3.5 grams (⁠1/8⁠ of an ounce, or an "eight ball"). [61]

Smuggling methods
Concealment

Drug traffickers use creative methods to hide drugs in containers, such as disguising them as sugar or flour, mixing them with soya, or concealing them within the container's structure. These tactics make detection much more difficult for authorities. [31]

Cocaine is frequently smuggled within shipping containers, but also commonly concealed in hidden compartments of vehicles and other objects, and criminal organizations have even created operational businesses to disguise drug shipments.

Additionally, cocaine is often concealed in a variety of everyday items and commercial goods to evade detection by authorities. Smugglers have hidden cocaine inside chocolate candies and other sweets, sometimes disguising the drug to look like ordinary candy bars or lollipops, which can be especially dangerous if accidentally consumed by children. Traffickers also use machinery and equipment-such as cotton-candy machines, construction equipment, and even heavy machinery parts-to hide cocaine, sometimes by impregnating the drug into materials like rubber or plastic components.

Black cocaine (Spanish: coca negra) is a form of cocaine in which the drug is mixed with various substances to disguise its appearance, interfere with color-based drug tests, and evade detection by drug-sniffing dogs; these additives may include pigments like charcoal, chemicals such as thiocyanates and iron or cobalt salts, and activated carbon to mask odors.

Another commonality is creating an operational business to disguise the mass shipments. [63] Notorious drug lord Joaquin 'El Chapo' Guzman is one of many who have mixed legitimate business with their drug activities to conceal their illicit trading. El Chapo opened a cannery in Mexico and began producing canned jalapeños and peppers, and stuffed them with cocaine. [62]

In August 2016, 370 kg of cocaine worth around €50 million was found hidden in a shipment of orange juice concentrate at a Coca-Cola plant in Signes, France. The drugs arrived in a container from South America. Authorities ruled out any involvement by Coca-Cola employees and launched an investigation to trace the origin of the cocaine. [64]

In 2024, Polish authorities seized 44 liters of liquid cocaine hidden in cartons of wine, valued at approximately 7.5 million zlotys ($1.85 million). [65]

At Miami International Airport in 1993, authorities discovered that some of the 312 boa constrictors in a shipment from Colombia had been surgically filled with condoms containing a total of 80 pounds (36 kg) of cocaine, resulting in the death of all the snakes. [66] [67]

Mules

Mochileros (lit. 'backpackers') are drug couriers in the Latin American drug trade. They move drugs on foot from areas where it is produced, such as cocaine from the Valle de los Ríos Apurímac, Ene y Mantaro in Peru, to pick-up points from which it can be collected by the next link in the transport chain. [68] The work is highly dangerous. [68]

In Mexico, the people who engage in this type of activity are called "Burreros" (Spanish wordplay that refers to the person as a donkey, a pack animal), these people cross the border between Mexico and United States through the Sonoran Desert into Arizona. They usually trek through the desert in small groups, the journey taking more than a week to complete, each with a square-shaped package on their backs, containing around 55 pounds of illegal substances. [69]

Abdominal X-ray showing swallowed packages of cocaine. Bolletjes.jpg
Abdominal X-ray showing swallowed packages of cocaine.
CBP officers arrest man at Port Everglades with cocaine wrapped around ankles CBP Officers Arrest Man at Port Everglades with Cocaine Wrapped Around Ankles (20901225020).jpg
CBP officers arrest man at Port Everglades with cocaine wrapped around ankles

Internationally, cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as "mules" (or "mulas"), who cross a border either legally, for example, through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will receive most of the profits. If the mule is caught, gangs may sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone. [70] In many cases, mules are often forced into the role, as result of coercion, violence, threats or extreme poverty. [70] [71]

General smuggling techniques, which also have been used for cocaine, include:

  • Concealment: Methods of smuggling include hiding the goods in a large vehicle in secret compartments, [72] luggage, [73] or clothes. [74]
  • Body packing: The practice of transporting goods outside or inside of the body is called body packing. [75] This is done by a person usually called a mule or bait. The contraband is attached to the outside of the body using adhesive tape, glue, or straps, often in such places as between the cheeks of the buttocks or between rolls of fat.
  • Swallowing: This is often done using a mule's gastrointestinal tract or other body cavities as containers. [76] In some cases, this has resulted in cardiac arrest. [77]
Maritime cocaine smuggling

Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the Western Caribbean zone–Gulf of Mexico area. These vessels are typically 150–250-foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as go-fast boats, like those used by the local populations. [78] [79]

U.S. Navy helps seize $352 million in cocaine from semi-submersible in the Eastern Pacific US Navy 070819-O-0000X-001 U.S. Navy helps seize $352 million in cocaine from semi-submersible in the Eastern Pacific.jpg
U.S. Navy helps seize $352 million in cocaine from semi-submersible in the Eastern Pacific

Sophisticated drug subs are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on 20 March 2008. Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them. [80]

In 2022, Spanish police seized three unmanned underwater vehicles used to smuggle drugs across the Strait of Gibraltar from Morocco, the first known interception of such devices. The drones, carrying up to 200 kg of narcotics each, were linked to French cartels. The operation led to eight arrests and exposed a gang using advanced drones and modified vehicles for trafficking across Europe (BBC, 2022). [81] [82] [83]

In 2025, international drug cartels began using sophisticated whale-shaped mini submarines to smuggle cocaine into Australia via Cyprus. These vessels are transported on cargo ships, dropped in international waters, then retrieved by smaller boats to deliver drugs ashore, posing a significant challenge to law enforcement detection efforts. [84]

Bribery

Bribery can occur either as part of a prearranged deal made before shipping, or as an offer extended if traffickers are caught during routine inspections. Bribery and corruption play a critical role in facilitating the illicit trafficking of cocaine. Drug trafficking organizations often rely on the bribery of government officials, law enforcement agents, customs officers, and border security personnel to evade detection and enable the smooth passage of cocaine shipments. These corrupt practices can involve payments, gifts, or other forms of illicit incentives aimed at securing cooperation or turning a blind eye to illegal activities.

Bribery helps traffickers circumvent checkpoints, avoid seizures, and reduce the risk of arrest or confiscation. It is particularly prevalent in regions with weak governance, limited law enforcement capacity, or endemic corruption, where officials may be more susceptible to financial inducements. This systemic corruption undermines efforts to combat drug trafficking and contributes to the persistence and expansion of cocaine supply chains.

Efforts to address bribery in the cocaine trade include international cooperation, anti-corruption initiatives, and strengthening institutional transparency and accountability. However, the clandestine nature of bribery makes it difficult to quantify its full impact on the illicit cocaine market.

Bribery has enabled cocaine trafficking in Hamburg's port, with officials and insiders accepting illicit payments to facilitate smuggling. This corruption exposes systemic vulnerabilities despite Germany's reputation for low corruption. [85] [86] [87]

Intercontinental distribution
Source regions

Cocaine trafficking is shifting to non-traditional South American ports in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay due to weak controls and porous borders. This shift responds to high demand from the US and Europe. Criminal groups prefer these routes for lower risk and higher profits. Authorities often overlook these ports, enabling traffickers to exploit them. Trafficking is expected to grow with new markets in Asia and Oceania. [88]

Caribbean route
HMS Iron Duke seized PS33 million of cocaine and destroyed a smuggling speedboat off the coast of South America Destroyed Drugs Vessel MOD 45150489.jpg
HMS Iron Duke seized £33 million of cocaine and destroyed a smuggling speedboat off the coast of South America

Cocaine traffickers from Colombia and Mexico have established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Islands chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug using a variety of smuggling techniques to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500 to 700 kg (1,100 to 1,500 lb) in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500 to 2,000 kg (1,100 to 4,400 lb), and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. [89] [90] [91]

Chilean route

Another route of cocaine traffic goes through Chile, which is primarily used for cocaine produced in Bolivia since the nearest seaports lie in northern Chile. The arid Bolivia–Chile border is easily crossed by 4×4 vehicles that then head to the seaports of Iquique and Antofagasta. While the price of cocaine is higher in Chile than in Peru and Bolivia, the final destination is usually Europe, especially Spain where drug dealing networks exist among South American immigrants. [92] [93]

Mexican route

The primary cocaine importation points in the United States have been in Arizona, Southern California, South Florida, and Texas. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the Mexico–United States border. As of 2006, sixty-five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, where the drug is first transported from South American countries. [94] As of 2015, the Sinaloa Cartel is the most active drug cartel involved in smuggling illicit drugs like cocaine into the United States and trafficking them throughout the United States. [95]

Destination hubs
Hamburg

Hamburg, Germany's largest port, has become a central hub for Europe's cocaine trade, with record seizures—such as the 16-tonne bust in 2021—exposing deep institutional corruption as drug networks infiltrate police, justice, and port infrastructure; a lead prosecutor is currently on trial for allegedly leaking investigation details to traffickers in exchange for bribes, while insiders like dockworkers and security staff have enabled smuggling, highlighting how the staggering profits from cocaine are fueling violence, bribery, and systemic vulnerabilities in a country long considered among the least corrupt in the world. [85] [86] [87]

Secondary extraction

Although most cocaine paste and base are typically processed further within Latin America, there are cases where they are trafficked directly to other continents, such as Europe, for subsequent refinement into cocaine hydrochloride. In some instances, they are chemically embedded into materials like plastics to avoid detection. [32]

Criminal traffickers are increasingly using sophisticated methods to smuggle cocaine by impregnating it into various carriers such as clothing, beeswax, plastics, herbs, charcoal, and liquids. Cocaine is also sometimes mixed with carbon, a method known as "black cocaine." These methods make detection by authorities much more difficult. Extracting cocaine from these materials requires complex chemical processes, leading to the discovery of large, clandestine laboratories dedicated to secondary extraction. These labs are modeled after Colombian cocaine production sites, with Dutch crime groups providing the resources and Colombian experts overseeing the extraction process. [31]

Cocaine processing occurs in several EU Member States, with multiple laboratories dismantled annually. European cocaine processing often involves the secondary extraction of cocaine that has been chemically concealed in materials like plastics, making detection in shipments challenging. Large quantities of cocaine base and paste are trafficked to Europe for conversion into cocaine hydrochloride. Each year, authorities detect some large-scale processing facilities; for example, six cocaine-processing labs were dismantled in Portugal between 2023 and 2024, resulting in the seizure of cocaine paste and cocaine hydrochloride. [32]

Wholesale distribution

After large-scale trafficking, cocaine is distributed within countries or regions by mid-level networks, primarily operating across major areas in both the United States and Europe. [32] These distributors break down bulk shipments into smaller quantities and supply local dealers or retail sellers. Distribution often involves organized groups that manage storage, transportation, and logistics to ensure the drug reaches various markets, preparing it for final sale to consumers.

Wholesale prices for cocaine increase dramatically as the drug moves from South America to consumer markets, with the cost in 2004 typically 15 times higher in the United States and 32 times higher in Europe than at the source in South America. [12]

Retail distribution
Cocaine in a zipper storage bag Bag of cocaine.jpg
Cocaine in a zipper storage bag

Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the Summer 1998 Pulse Check, published by the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy, cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in San Diego, Bridgeport, Miami, and Boston. In the Western United States, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be due to a switch to methamphetamine among some users; methamphetamine is cheaper, three and a half times more powerful, and lasts 12–24 times longer with each dose. [96] [97] Nevertheless, the number of cocaine users remain high, with a large concentration among urban youth.

In 2010, the purity- and inflation-adjusted retail price of cocaine was €191 per gram, based on data from 14 countries for which sufficient purity and price data were available, as reported by UNODC, ARQ, and EUROPOL. [98]

In addition to the amounts previously mentioned, cocaine can be sold in "bill sizes": As of 2007 for example, $10 might purchase a "dime bag", a very small amount (0.1–0.15 g) of cocaine. These amounts and prices are very popular among young people because they are inexpensive and easily concealed on one's body. Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on supply and demand, and on geographic region. [99]

In 2008, the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that the typical retail price of cocaine varied between €50 and €75 per gram in most European countries, although Cyprus, Romania, Sweden, and Turkey reported much higher values. [100]

Lacing

In some cases, cocaine has been adulterated with fruit flavorings, reportedly to make the drug more appealing to younger users Flavcocaine.jpg
In some cases, cocaine has been adulterated with fruit flavorings, reportedly to make the drug more appealing to younger users

Street cocaine is often laced or "cut" with cheaper substances to increase bulk, including talc, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, inositol, caffeine, procaine, phencyclidine, phenytoin, lidocaine, strychnine, levamisole, fentanyl, and amphetamine. [102] [103] Caffeine, often added to street cocaine, increases cocaine's reinforcing and motivational effects, making the drug more compelling for users. [104]

Cocaine is rarely prescribed for medical use, so nearly all recreational cocaine is sourced illegally. As it moves through a long chain of traffickers—often a dozen or more—each looking to maximize profit, the drug is commonly mixed with various adulterants. This widespread adulteration significantly raises the risk of poisoning or overdose. For users, this means it is extremely difficult to know what substances have been added to the cocaine they purchase. Even when purity tests or reagent kits are used, these methods may not detect all possible contaminants or dangerous additives, making it nearly impossible to guarantee the drug's safety or purity.

The extent of cutting can vary significantly over time but for the last 15 years drugs such as cocaine ranged in Europe on average from 32% to 65% in purity. [105]

A problem with illegal cocaine use, especially in the higher volumes used to combat fatigue (rather than increase euphoria) by long-term users, is the risk of ill effects or damage caused by the compounds used in adulteration. Cutting or "stepping on" the drug is commonplace, using compounds which simulate ingestion effects, such as Novocain (procaine) producing temporary anesthesia, as many users believe a strong numbing effect is the result of strong and/or pure cocaine, ephedrine or similar stimulants that are to produce an increased heart rate. The normal adulterants for profit are inactive sugars, usually mannitol, creatine, or glucose, so introducing active adulterants gives the illusion of purity and to 'stretch' or make it so a dealer can sell more product than without the adulterants, however the purity of the cocaine is subsequently lowered. [106] [107] The adulterant of sugars allows the dealer to sell the product for a higher price because of the illusion of purity and allows the sale of more of the product at that higher price, enabling dealers to significantly increase revenue with little additional cost for the adulterants. A 2007 study by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction showed that the purity levels for street purchased cocaine was often under 5% and on average under 50% pure. [108]

Levamisole

Beginning in early 2003, South American cartels started adding levamisole to bulk cocaine before shipping it to the United States (Valentino and Fuentecilla 2005). [30]

Levamisole, commonly found in cocaine, enhances cocaine's effects in vivo , creating a stronger, synergistic impact. [109] In the body, levamisole is converted into aminorex, a toxic substance with amphetamine-like stimulant effects and a long duration of action. [110] Cocaine acts as a serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI), [111] [112] while aminorex is a serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent (SNDRA), [113] [114] [115] which is similar in that it increases the levels of these neurotransmitters but does so by promoting their release rather than inhibiting their reuptake.

Levamisole is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines as an intestinal anthelmintic, a class of antiparasitic drugs. [116] After a typical prescribed dose of levamisole, only a small fraction is converted to aminorex, with maximum aminorex concentrations in urine being relatively low. In these controlled, therapeutic contexts, the amount of aminorex formed is much lower than doses historically associated with aminorex toxicity or abuse, or than the cumulative exposure seen with chronic use of levamisole-adulterated cocaine in individuals with cocaine dependence.

Levamisole ranks as one of the most common cutting agents in illicit cocaine on a global scale. Between 2009 and 2016, data show that half to 70% of worldwide cocaine samples were contaminated with levamisole, matching the high rates seen in North America and Europe. [117] Levamisole has increasingly been used as a cutting agent in cocaine sold around the globe with the highest incidence being in the United States. In 2008–2009, levamisole was found in 69% of cocaine samples seized by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). [118] In 2009, DEA findings showed that the average levamisole concentration in cocaine was approximately 10%. [109] By April 2011, the DEA reported the adulterant was found in 82% of seizures. [119] By October 2017, this figure had risen further, with the DEA reporting that 87% of seized and analyzed cocaine bricks in the United States contained levamisole, making it the most common adulterant in cocaine at that time. [24]

Local anesthetics

Cocaine is sometimes cut with lidocaine, [120] [121] and procaine. [122]

Opioids

Fentanyl has been increasingly found in cocaine samples. [102] In February 2022, 24 people in Argentina died after using cocaine laced with the fentanyl-analogue carfentanil. [123]

Nitazenes, a family of potent synthetic opioids, have also been detected. [124]

Counterfeit cocaine

The 2014 Amsterdam drug deaths underscore the dangers of misidentified drugs, as two tourists died after using heroin sold as cocaine.

In 2022, Canberra's government-backed CanTEST drug checking clinic found that 40% of substances brought in as "cocaine" contained no cocaine at all. Instead, these samples were often made up of benign fillers such as dimethyl sulfone, highlighting significant adulteration in the local cocaine market. The actual cocaine samples tested also had low purity, with none exceeding 27%. [33] [125]

Pharmaceutical supply chain

Production

A coca plant. Colcoca01.jpg
A coca plant.

In Bolivia, legal coca cultivation is regulated by the Coca and Integral Development agency, which operates under the Ministry of Rural Development.

In Colombia, the regulation of legal coca cultivation for traditional and scientific uses falls under the responsibility of government agencies, primarily the Ministry of Justice and Law (Ministerio de Justicia y del Derecho).

In Peru, The National Company of the Coca (Spanish: Empresa Nacional de la Coca, ENACO) is a state company dedicated to the commercialization of the coca leaf and derivatives. It is the only state company that has a monopoly on the commercialization and derivatives of the coca leaf. It was created in 1949. [126] In 1982, it became a state company under private law. Nonetheless, much of this cocaine enters the black market. [127] In 2023, one estimate was 90%. [2] The operation of the company is specified in Law 22095.

Stepan Company

The Stepan Company operates a unique facility in Maywood, New Jersey, [128] which is the only commercial plant in the United States authorized by the Drug Enforcement Administration to import and process coca leaves, primarily sourced from Peru via the National Coca Company. The Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the leaves, producing a cocaine-free coca extract that is supplied to The Coca-Cola Company for use as a flavoring ingredient in its beverages. The separated pharmaceutical-grade cocaine is sold to Mallinckrodt, a pharmaceutical company, for use in medical applications such as local anesthesia. [129]

Distribution

Mallinckrodt

As of 1988, Mallinckrodt is the only company in the U.S. that is allowed to receive cocaine, which is sold as a prescription drug for use in hospitals as a local anesthetic by eye and ear, nose and throat (ENT) doctors. [130]

Enforcement

Coca eradication

Coca eradication in Colombia Figure 6 Colombian Manual Eradicators Destroying Coca Fields (31352594937).jpg
Coca eradication in Colombia

Coca eradication is a strategy promoted by the United States government starting in 1961 as part of its "war on drugs" to eliminate the cultivation of coca, a plant whose leaves are not only traditionally used by indigenous cultures but also, in modern society, in the manufacture of cocaine. The strategy was adopted in place of running educational campaigns against drug usage. [131] [ unreliable source? ] The prohibitionist strategy is being pursued in the coca-growing regions of Colombia (Plan Colombia),[ needs update ] Peru, and formerly Bolivia, where it is highly controversial because of its environmental, health and socioeconomic impact. Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the Altiplano , such as the Aymaras, use the coca leaf (which they dub the "millenary leaf") in many of their cultural traditions, notably for its medicinal qualities in alleviating the feeling of hunger, fatigue and headaches symptomatic of altitude sicknesses.[ citation needed ] The growers of coca are named Cocaleros and part of the coca production for traditional use is legal in Peru, Bolivia and Chile.[ citation needed ]

Interdiction

The Consolidated Counterdrug Database (CCDB) is a U.S. government dataset created in the 1990s that compiles vetted data on cocaine trafficking and seizures in the Western Hemisphere "transit zone," involving 26 U.S. agencies and 20 foreign partners. It provides a highly reliable, conservative record of cocaine movements and interdiction efforts, revealing that despite large seizures, interdiction captures only a small fraction of trafficking events and has minimal impact on U.S. cocaine prices. The CCDB challenges optimistic views of drug interdiction effectiveness and underscores the need for new policy approaches, yet remains underutilized in research despite being unclassified. [132]

In 2004, according to the United Nations, 589 tonnes of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities. Colombia seized 188 t, the United States 166 t, Europe 79 t, Peru 14 t, Bolivia 9 t, and the rest of the world 133 t. [133]

Drug liberalization

In August 2022, Gustavo Petro, the president of Colombia, proposed decriminalizing the production of cocaine and marijuana, declaring "It is time for a new international convention that accepts that the war on drugs has failed." [134] In a widely recognized speech before the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 2022, Petro asked the question "What is more poisonous for humanity, cocaine, coal or oil?" He said the "addiction to irrational power, profit and money" being at the heart of the climate crisis and called the war on drugs a failure, accusing the global north of turning a blind eye to the destruction of the Amazon rainforest. [135] In February 2025, Petro stated that "cocaine is no worse than whisky," arguing that its criminalization is rooted in regional bias rather than scientific evidence. He called for global legalization to curb trafficking, prompting criticism from health officials and political opponents. [136]

See also

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