Contemporary anarchism

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Contemporary anarchism within the history of anarchism is the period of the anarchist movement continuing from the end of World War II and into the present. Since the last third of the 20th century, anarchists have been involved in anti-globalisation, peace, squatter and student protest movements. Anarchists have participated in armed revolutions such as in those that created the Makhnovshchina and Revolutionary Catalonia, and anarchist political organizations such as the International Workers' Association and the Industrial Workers of the World have existed since the 20th century. Within contemporary anarchism, the anti-capitalism of classical anarchism has remained prominent. [1] [2]

Contents

Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, [3] whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. [4] As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. [4] Various anarchist groups, tendencies and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. [5] While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple "anarchisms" (rather than a singular "anarchism") in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists. [6]

New currents which emerged within contemporary anarchism include post-anarchism and post-left anarchy. New anarchism is a term that has been notably used by several authors to describe the most recent reinvention of the anarchist thought and practice. What distinguishes the new anarchism of today from the new anarchism of the 1960s and 1970s, or from the work of Anglo-American based authors such as Murray Bookchin, Alex Comfort, Paul Goodman, Herbert Read and Colin Ward, is its emphasis on the global perspective. Essays on new anarchism [7] include David Graeber's "New Anarchists" [8] and Andrej Grubačić's "Towards Another Anarchism"; [9] [10] other authors have criticized the term for being too vague. [11]

Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." [12] Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. [13] The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy. [14] Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence; however, its publicity has also led more scholars to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. [3] [15]

History

Members of the Spanish anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT marching in Madrid in 2010 CNT-1mayo2010.jpg
Members of the Spanish anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT marching in Madrid in 2010

Anarchism was influential in the counterculture of the 1960s [16] [17] [18] and anarchists actively participated in the protests of 1968 involving students and workers revolts. [19] In 1968, the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held in Carrara by the three existing European federations, namely the French Anarchist Federation, the Iberian Anarchist Federation and the Italian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian Anarchist Federation in French exile. [20] In the United Kingdom during the 1970s, this was associated with the punk rock movement as exemplified by bands such as Crass (pioneers of the anarcho-punk subgenre) and the Sex Pistols. [21]

The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes, intentional communities and squatter movements like that of Barcelona. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen. The relationship between anarchism and punk as well as squatting has carried on into the 21st century. In Infinitely Demanding, Simon Critchley wrote: "There is no doubt that 60s anarchism was libertarian and linked to the sexual revolution, liberation of the erotic instincts and what Herbert Marcuse called 'nonrepressive sublimation'. Yet, contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary neo-liberalism, where the sexual revolution has turned the culture industry into the sex industry – ask yourself, is there today anything less transgressive and more normalizing than pornography? One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally." [22]

Since the revival of anarchism in the mid-20th century, [23] a number of new movements and schools of thought emerged, well documented in Robert Graham's Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977). [24] Although feminist tendencies have always been a part of the anarchist movement in the form of anarcha-feminism, they returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism in the 1960s. The American civil rights movement and the movement in opposition to the Vietnam War also contributed to the revival of North American anarchism. European anarchism of the late 20th century drew much of its strength from the labour movement and both have incorporated animal rights activism. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber and anarchist historian Andrej Grubačić have posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits" of the 19th century contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas" and who by the turn of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists. [7]

Contemporary members of the Italian Anarchist Federation marching in Rome in 2008 in an anti-Catholic manifestation (the text translates as "free from dogmas, always heretics") Facciamo breccia 2008 by Stefano Bolognini18.JPG
Contemporary members of the Italian Anarchist Federation marching in Rome in 2008 in an anti-Catholic manifestation (the text translates as "free from dogmas, always heretics")

Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist and anti-globalisation movements. [25] Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with police. These actions were precipitated by ad hoc, leaderless and anonymous cadres known as black blocs, although other peaceful organisational tactics pioneered in this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. [25] A significant event of this period was the 1999 Seattle WTO protests. [25] Many commentators have stated that the Occupy Wall Street movement has roots in anarchist philosophy. [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]

International anarchist federations in existence include the International of Anarchist Federations and the International Workers' Association. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain in the form of the CGT and the CNT, with the CGT membership being estimated at around 100,000 for 2003. [31] Other active anarcho-syndicalist movements include the CNT–AIT in France, the Union Sindicale Italiana in Italy, the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden and the Swedish Anarcho-syndicalist Youth Federation in Sweden, the Workers Solidarity Alliance in the United States and the Solidarity Federation in the United Kingdom. The revolutionary industrial unionist Industrial Workers of the World claiming 10,000 paying members and the International Workers' Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active. The International of Anarchist Federations was founded in 1968 during an international anarchist conference in Carrara by the three existing European anarchist federations of France, Italy and Spain as well as the Bulgarian Anarchist Federation in French exile. These organizations were also inspired on synthesis anarchist principles. [32] Currently alongside the previously mentioned federations, the International of Anarchist Federations includes the Argentine Libertarian Federation, the Anarchist Federation of Belarus, the Czech-Slovak Anarchist Federation, the Federation of German speaking Anarchists in Germany and Switzerland and the Anarchist Federation in the United Kingdom and Ireland. [33]

Platformism is an important current in international anarchism. Around thirty platformist and specifist organizations are linked together in the Anarkismo project, including groups from Africa, Europe, Latin America and North America. [34] At least in terms of the number of affiliated organisations, the Anarkismo network is larger than other anarchist international bodies such as the International of Anarchist Federations and the International Workers' Association. However, it is not a formal international and has no intention of competing with these other formations. Today, there are organisations inspired by Dielo Truda's Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) in many countries, including Federación Anarco-Comunista de Argentina and Línea Anarco-Comunista in Argentina, the Melbourne Anarchist Communist Group and Sydney Anarchist Communist Trajectory in Australia, Fórum do Anarquismo Organizado in Brazil, Common Cause (Ontario) and Union Communiste Libertaire (Quebec) in Canada, Federación Comunista Libertaria and Organización Comunista Libertaria (OCL) in Chile, Alternative Libertaire and Organisation Communiste Libertaire in France, Federazione dei Comunisti Anarchici in Italy, Alianza de los Comunistas Libertarios in Mexico, Motmakt in Norway, Unión Socialista Libertaria in Peru, the Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front in South Africa, Collective Action in the United Kingdom, Common Struggle/Lucha Común in the United States and the Revolutionary Confederation of Anarcho-Syndicalists by the name of N. I. Makhno which is an international anarcho-syndicalist and platformist confederation with sections and individual members in Bulgaria, Georgia, Germany, Israel, Latvia, Russia and Ukraine. Organisations inspired by platformism were also among the founders of the now-defunct International Libertarian Solidarity network and its successor Anarkismo network which is run collaboratively by roughly thirty platformist and specifists organisations around the world. [34]

Rojava is supporting efforts for workers to form cooperatives such as this sewing cooperative Rojava Sewing Cooperative.jpg
Rojava is supporting efforts for workers to form cooperatives such as this sewing cooperative

Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria. [35] Abdullah Öcalan, a founding member of the Kurdistan Workers' Party who is currently imprisoned in Turkey, is an iconic and popular figure in Rojava and whose ideas shaped the region's society and politics. [36]

While in prison, Öcalan corresponded with and was influenced by Murray Bookchin, a social anarchist theorist and philosopher who developed communalism and libertarian municipalism. [36] Modelled after Bookchin's ideas, Öcalan developed the theory of democratic confederalism. In March 2005, Öcalan issued his "Declaration of Democratic Confederalism in Kurdistan", calling upon citizens "to stop attacking the government and instead create municipal assemblies, which he called 'democracy without the state'". [36]

Noam Chomsky stated that anarcho-syndicalism, a classical anarchist school of thought that remains popular and relevant to contemporary anarchism, is "highly relevant to advanced industrial societies". [37] Anarchism continues to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and syncretic, combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. [38]

Currents

New anarchism

Self-avowed anarchist scholars such as David Graeber and Andrej Grubačić have written on trends within contemporary anarchism both individually and in collaboration. Writing together, their emphasis is upon a "global revolutionary movement" finding roots in anarchism as opposed to Marxism, and a new generation "much more interested in developing new forms of practice than arguing about the finer points of ideology." [7] Using the phrase "the new anarchists", Graeber elaborates upon practice with regard to globalization, "a 'new language' of civil disobedience", direct democracy, and prefigurative politics. [8] Using the phrase another anarchism, Grubačić situates contemporary anarchism in terms of its historical roots, and emphasizes its "anti-sectarian" nature, rejection of vanguardism, internationalism, decentralization, and direct democracy. [10] Using the phrase new anarchism, political scientist Leonard Williams seeks out an "anarchist metaphysic" of contemporary anarchism and emphasizes its anti-authoritarianism, pluralism, and its "theory of practice." [39] While stipulating a use of the phrase new anarchism that does "not specifically refer to David Graeber's use of the term here in his New Left Review article 'The New Anarchists'", Teoman Gee decries the associations of the phrase with anarchist practices that are anti-historical, polemical, or associated with superficial lifestyle anarchism. [11]

Post-anarchism

Post-anarchism is a revision of classical anarchism sometimes through the influence of post-structuralists such as Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan. [40] Post-anarchism is a contested term, with its prefix "post" referring to post-structuralism and/or postmodernism, which themselves are contested terms. [41] Many post-anarchist theorists (e.g., Jason Adams, Todd May, and Saul Newman) invoke post-structuralist writings. The postmodern aspect of post-anarchism involves rejection of universal values and grand theories in favor of plurality and hybridity. [42] Philosopher Benjamin Franks identified three types of post-anarchism: (1) Lyotardian Postanarchism, which proposes replacing classical anarchist (revolutionary) tactics with those of post-structuralists; (2) redemptive postanarchism, to incorporate post-structural theory into existing anarchist practices; and (3) postmodern anarchism, which applies anarchist approaches to globalized oppressions of the late 21st century. [43] Critics of post-anarchism argue that it ignores principles of class warfare and economic exploitation, not producing political action. [40] Duane Rousselle and Saul Newman have advanced a psychoanalytic post-anarchism inspired by the writings of Jacques Lacan. Duane Rousselle’s work brings together thinking from the New Lacanian School of Jacques Lacan and Slavoj Zizek to outline a distinctive approach that takes serious the political challenges of enjoyment or jouissance. [44]

Post-left anarchy

Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional left-wing politics, such as its emphasis on class struggle, social revolution, labor unions, the working class, and identity politics. Influenced by anti-authoritarian postmodern philosophy, post-leftists reject Enlightenment rationalism and modernism and deconstruct topics such as gender. While a few advocate for armed insurrection, most advocate for creating spaces and affinity groups to act freely within current society rather than fighting for a utopian ideal. In the United States, CrimethInc., Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed , and Green Anarchy are associated with post-leftism, as are many primitivists. CrimethInc, which is influenced by situationism, anarcho-punk, and green anarchy, argues for a DIY folk approach to everyday life, including refusal of work, escaping gender roles, and straight edge lifestyle. [45]

See also

Related Research Articles

Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is skeptical of all justifications for authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including nation-states, and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. As a historically left-wing movement, this reading of anarchism is placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement.

Anarchist communism is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought that advocates communism. It calls for the abolition of private property but retention of personal property and collectively-owned items, goods, and services. It supports social ownership of property and the distribution of resources "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".

The history of anarchism is ambiguous, primarily due to the ambiguity of anarchism itself. Scholars find it hard to define or agree on what anarchism means, which makes outlining its history difficult. There is a range of views on anarchism and its history. Some feel anarchism is a distinct, well-defined 19th and 20th century movement while others identify anarchist traits long before first civilisations existed.

The nature of capitalism is criticized by left-wing anarchists, who reject hierarchy and advocate stateless societies based on non-hierarchical voluntary associations. Anarchism is generally defined as the libertarian philosophy which holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful as well as opposing authoritarianism, illegitimate authority and hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations. Capitalism is generally considered by scholars to be an economic system that includes private ownership of the means of production, creation of goods or services for profit or income, the accumulation of capital, competitive markets, voluntary exchange and wage labor, which have generally been opposed by most anarchists historically. Since capitalism is variously defined by sources and there is no general consensus among scholars on the definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category, the designation is applied to a variety of historical cases, varying in time, geography, politics and culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front</span> Political party in South Africa

The Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Front, formerly known as the Zabalaza Anarchist Communist Federation (ZabFed), is a platformist–especifista anarchist political organisation in South Africa, based primarily in Johannesburg. The word zabalaza means "struggle" or "active rebellion" in isiZulu, isiXhosa, siSwati and isiNdebele. Initially, as ZabFed, it was a federation of pre-existing collectives, mainly in Soweto and Johannesburg. It is now a unitary organisation based on individual applications for membership, describing itself as a "federation of individuals". Historically the majority of members have been people of colour. Initially the ZACF had sections in both South Africa and Swaziland. The two sections were split in 2007, but the Swazi group faltered in 2008. Currently the ZACF also recruits in Zimbabwe. Members have experienced oppression in South Africa and Swaziland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anarchism in Africa</span>

Anarchism in Africa refers both to purported anarchic political organisation of some traditional African societies and to modern anarchist movements in Africa.

The Japanese Anarchist Federation was an anarchist organisation that existed in Japan from 1946 to 1968.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alternative libertaire</span> Political organization in France

Alternative libertaire was a French anarchist organization formed in 1991 which publishes a monthly magazine, actively participates in a variety of social movements, and is a participant in the Anarkismo.net project. In 2019 the organization merged into the Union Communiste Libertaire

In the United States, anarchism began in the mid-19th century and started to grow in influence as it entered the American labor movements, growing an anarcho-communist current as well as gaining notoriety for violent propaganda of the deed and campaigning for diverse social reforms in the early 20th century. By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed and anarcho-communism and other social anarchist currents emerged as the dominant anarchist tendency.

Libertarianism is a political philosophy that upholds liberty as a core value. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom, emphasizing equality before the law and civil rights to freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of thought and freedom of choice. Libertarians are often skeptical of or opposed to authority, state power, warfare, militarism and nationalism, but some libertarians diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing economic and political systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power. Different categorizations have been used to distinguish various forms of Libertarianism. Scholars distinguish libertarian views on the nature of property and capital, usually along left–right or socialist–capitalist lines. Libertarians of various schools were influenced by liberal ideas.

Anarchism is generally defined as the political philosophy which holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful as well as opposing authority and hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations. Proponents of anarchism, known as anarchists, advocate stateless societies based on non-hierarchical voluntary associations. While anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful, opposition to the state is not its central or sole definition. Anarchism can entail opposing authority or hierarchy in the conduct of all human relations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anarchism in Sweden</span>

Anarchism in Sweden first grew out of the nascent social democratic movement during the later 19th century, with a specifically libertarian socialist tendency emerging from a split in the movement. As with the movements in Germany and the Netherlands, Swedish anarchism had a strong syndicalist tendency, which culminated in the establishment of the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (SAC) following an aborted general strike. The modern movement emerged during the late 20th century, growing within a number of countercultural movements before the revival of anarcho-syndicalism during the 1990s.

Post-colonial anarchism is a term used to describe anarchism in an anti-imperialist framework. Whereas traditional anarchism arose from industrialized Western nations—and thus sees history from their perspective—post-colonial anarchism approaches the same principles of anarchism from the perspective of colonized peoples. It is highly critical of the contributions of the established anarchist movement, and seeks to add what it sees as a unique and important perspective. The tendency is strongly influenced by indigenism, anti-state forms of nationalism, and anarchism among ethnic minorities, among other sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anarchism in Australia</span> Australian anarchism

Anarchism in Australia arrived within a few years of anarchism developing as a distinct tendency in the wake of the 1871 Paris Commune. Although a minor school of thought and politics, composed primarily of campaigners and intellectuals, Australian anarchism has formed a significant current throughout the history and literature of the colonies and nation. Anarchism's influence has been industrial and cultural, though its influence has waned from its high point in the early 20th century where anarchist techniques and ideas deeply influenced the official Australian union movement. In the mid 20th century anarchism's influence was primarily restricted to urban bohemian cultural movements. In the late 20th century and early 21st century Australian anarchism has been an element in Australia's social justice and protest movements.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to anarchism:

Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas is a three-volume anthology of anarchist writings edited by historian Robert Graham. The anthology is published by Black Rose Books. Each selection is introduced by Graham, placing each author and selection in their historical and ideological context. The focus of the anthology is on the origins and development of anarchist ideas; it is not a documentary history of the world's anarchist movements, although the selections are geographically diverse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Libertære Socialister</span> Political party in Denmark

Libertære Socialister was a Danish political left-wing organization which was founded on November 8, 2009, at its third initial meeting in Horsens. The organisation was working on the political ground of an anti-capitalist, revolutionary and libertarian socialist platform. LS had local groups in Copenhagen, Aalborg and Odense and these groups were linked together in a federation, which was described in details the organization's rules.

Anarchism in Venezuela has historically played a fringe role in the country's politics, being consistently smaller and less influential than equivalent movements in much of the rest of South America. It has, however, had a certain impact on the country's cultural and political evolution.

Anarchism and libertarianism, as broad political ideologies with manifold historical and contemporary meanings, have contested definitions. Their adherents have a pluralistic and overlapping tradition that makes precise definition of the political ideology difficult or impossible, compounded by a lack of common features, differing priorities of subgroups, lack of academic acceptance, and contentious historical usage.

Anarchism in Bulgaria first appeared in the 1860s, within the national movement seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire, strongly influenced by the Russian revolutionary movement. Anarchism established itself as a distinct political movement at the end of the 19th century. It developed further in the 20th century, so much so that Bulgaria was one of the few countries in Eastern Europe where the organized anarchist movement enjoyed a real establishment throughout the country, until the seizure of power by the Bulgarian Communist Party. Under the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the anarchist movement survived underground, but was the victim of severe repression. From 1989, anarchism has been freely reconstituted.

References

  1. ↑ Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". WorkingUSA. 12 (3): 505–519. doi:10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x. ISSN   1089-7011.
  2. ↑ Williams, Dana M. (2018). "Contemporary Anarchist and Anarchistic Movements". Sociology Compass. Wiley. 12 (6): 4. doi:10.1111/soc4.12582. ISSN   1751-9020.
  3. 1 2 Evren, Süreyyya (2011). "How New Anarchism Changed the World (of Opposition) after Seattle and Gave Birth to Post-Anarchism". In Rousselle, Duane; Evren, Süreyyya (eds.). Post-Anarchism: A Reader. London: Pluto Press. p. 1. ISBN   978-0-7453-3086-0.
  4. 1 2 Evren, Süreyyya (2011). "How New Anarchism Changed the World (of Opposition) after Seattle and Gave Birth to Post-Anarchism". In Rousselle, Duane; Evren, Süreyyya (eds.). Post-Anarchism: A Reader. London: Pluto Press. p. 2. ISBN   978-0-7453-3086-0.
  5. ↑ Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 385–386. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001.
  6. ↑ Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). "Anarchism". In Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 386. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001.
  7. 1 2 3 Graeber, David; Grubačić, Andrej (6 January 2004). "Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century". ZNet . Archived from the original on 17 March 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2020.. Republished as PDF at Punks in Science. Archived 23 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine .
  8. 1 2 Graeber, David (2004). "New Anarchists". In Mertes, Tom (ed.). A Movement of Movements: Is Another World Really Possible? (1st ed.). London: Verso Books. ISBN   9781859844687.
  9. ↑ Williams, Leonard (31 August 2006). "The New Anarchists" (Paper). Philadelphia: American Political Science Association. Retrieved 24 September 2020 – via the All Academic website.
  10. 1 2 Grubačić, Andrej (2007). "Towards Another Anarchism". In Sen, Jai; Waterman, Peter (eds.). World Social Forum: Challenging Empires (revised 2nd ed.). Montreal: Black Rose Books. ISBN   9781551643090.
  11. 1 2 Gee, Teoman (2003). "'New Anarchism': Some Thoughts". Alpine Anarchist Productions. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  12. ↑ Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". WorkingUSA. 12 (3): 507–508. doi:10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x. ISSN   1089-7011.
  13. ↑ Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". WorkingUSA. 12 (3): 507. doi:10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x. ISSN   1089-7011.
  14. ↑ Egoumenides, Magda (2014). Philosophical Anarchism and Political Obligation. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 91. ISBN   9781441124456.
  15. ↑ Williams, Leonard (2010). "Hakim Bey and Ontological Anarchism". Journal for the Study of Radicalism. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. 4 (2): 110. doi:10.1353/jsr.2010.0009. JSTOR   41887660. S2CID   143304524.
  16. ↑ Shively, Charley (1990). "Anarchism" (PDF). In Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (PDF). Vol. 2. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 52. ISBN   0824065441. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2020– via the William A. Percy website and The Concise Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as 'The Tyranny of Structurelessness.' Several groups have called themselves 'Amazon Anarchists.' After the Stonewall Rebellion, the New York Gay Liberation Front based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings.
  17. ↑ Chorbajian, Levon (1998). "Book Review: The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism by James J. Farrell". Social Anarchism. 26. Retrieved 24 September 2020– via The Library at Nothingness website. Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, 'Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.
  18. ↑ Patten, John (2003). Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos and Refract 1969-1987 - An Annotated Bibliography (revised ed.). London: Kate Sharpley Library. ISBN   9781873605233. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2020– via the Kate Sharpley Library website. These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.
  19. ↑ Epstein, Barbara (1 September 2001). "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement". Monthly Review . 53 (4): 1. doi:10.14452/MR-053-04-2001-08_1 . Retrieved 24 September 2020. Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties. [...] But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular. [...] By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement.
  20. ↑ "London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968 Amsterdam". International Institute of Social History. 19 December 2005. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  21. ↑ McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 10. ISBN   9780754661962.
  22. ↑ Critchley, Simon (2007). Infinitely Demanding. London: Verso Books. p. 125. ISBN   9781781680179.
  23. ↑ Williams, Leonard (September 2007). "Anarchism Revived". New Political Science . 29 (3): 297–312. doi:10.1080/07393140701510160. S2CID   220354272.
  24. ↑ Graham, Robert, ed. (2008). Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume Two: The Emergence of the New Anarchism (1939–1977) (PDF). Montreal: Black Rose Books. ISBN   9781551643113 . Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  25. 1 2 3 Rupert, Mark (2006). Globalization and International Political Economy . Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 66. ISBN   9780742529434 . Retrieved 24 September 2020– via Internet Archive.
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  27. ↑ Berrett, Dan (October 16, 2011). "Intellectual Roots of Wall Street Protest Lie in Academe". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved February 26, 2012.
  28. ↑ Schneider, Nathan (December 20, 2011). "Thank You, Anarchists". The Nation. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  29. ↑ Kazin, Michael (November 7, 2011). "Michael Kazin: Anarchy Now: Occupy Wall Street Revives An Ideology". The New Republic. Archived from the original on December 10, 2011. Retrieved February 26, 2012.
  30. ↑ Gibson, Morgan Rodgers (2013) (2013). "The 'Anarchism' of the Occupy Movement". Australian Journal of Political Science. 48 (3): 335–348. doi:10.1080/10361146.2013.820687. S2CID   144776094.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  31. ↑ Carley, Mark (20 May 2004). "Trade Union Membership 1993–2003" Archived 2022-04-07 at the Wayback Machine . SPIRE Associates. Retrieved 24 September – via Eurofond. See also Carley, Mark (21 September 2009). "Trade Union Membership 2003–2008". SPIRE Associates. Retrieved 24 September – via Eurofond.
  32. ↑ The Anarchist FAQ Collective; McKay, Iain, ed. (2008). "J.3.2 What are 'synthesis' federations?". An Anarchist FAQ. I. Oakland: AK Press. ISBN   9781849351225. Archived 7 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 24 September 2020 – via Infoshop.
  33. ↑ "IFA-IAF pagina oficial" [IFA-IAF official page] (in Spanish). International of Anarchist Federations. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 26 January 2013– via the International of Anarchist Federations website.
  34. 1 2 "About Us". Anarkismo (in Italian). Retrieved 24 September 2020.. PDF version.
  35. ↑ Bufe, Chaz; Hedges, Chris; McHenry, Keith (2015). Anarchist Cookbook. Tucson: See Sharp Press. p. 85. ISBN   9781937276782 . Retrieved 24 September 2020– via Google Books.
  36. 1 2 3 Enzinna, Wes (24 November 2015). "A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
  37. ↑ Chomsky, Noam; Jay, Peter (25 July 1976). "The Relevance of Anarcho-Syndicalism". The Jay Interview. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
  38. ↑ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. New Brunswick: Transaction Books. ISBN   9781412820332 . Retrieved 24 September 2020– via Google Books.
  39. ↑ "Leonard Williams". Manchester University . Retrieved 11 August 2021.
  40. 1 2 Kinna, Ruth (2010). "Anarchy". In Bevir, Mark (ed.). Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. pp. 37–39. ISBN   9781506332727 . Retrieved 24 September 2020– via Google Books.
  41. ↑ Franks 2007, p. 129.
  42. ↑ Franks 2007, p. 130.
  43. ↑ Franks 2007, pp. 131–132.
  44. ↑ Rousselle, Duane (2023). Post-anarchism and Psychoanalysis: Seminars on Politics and Society. Independently Published. ISBN   9798377450665.
  45. ↑ Marshall, Peter (1992). "Post-left Anarchy". Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism . London: HarperCollins. pp. 679–680. ISBN   978-0-00-217855-6.

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