Anarchism in Bangladesh

Last updated

Anarchism in Bangladesh has its roots in the ideas of the Bengali Renaissance and began to take influence as part of the revolutionary movement for Indian independence in Bengal. After a series of defeats of the revolutionary movement and the rise of state socialist ideas within the Bengali left-wing, anarchism went into a period of remission. This lasted until the 1990s, when anarchism again began to reemerge after the fracturing of the Communist Party of Bangladesh, which led to the rise of anarcho-syndicalism among the Bangladeshi workers' movement.

Contents

History

Rabindranath Tagore, a prominent figure within the Bengali Renaissance and a proponent of internationalism, in part inspired by anarchist ideas. Rabindranath Tagore unknown location.jpg
Rabindranath Tagore, a prominent figure within the Bengali Renaissance and a proponent of internationalism, in part inspired by anarchist ideas.

Bengal was largely stateless until the 6th century BCE, when the later Vedic Period gave way to the rule of the Mahajanapadas, with the Vanga Kingdom coming to rule over the Gangaridai region. Bengal subsequently was ruled by a succession of Hindu and Buddhist empires before the conquests of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji eventually introduced Islam to the region. [1] In the 14th century, the Bengal Sultanate was established as an independent power, but it was later conquered by the Mughal Empire, which established the Bengal Subah in the sultanate's place. By the 18th century, Bengal began to regain independence under the Nawabs and subsequently underwent an industrial revolution. But the region soon became a locus for European colonial powers, with the British East India Company eventually annexing Bengal into the British Empire, bringing it under the rule of the Bengal Presidency.

Bengali Renaissance

In the early 19th century, the Bengali Renaissance began to spread throughout the Bengali community, [2] beginning with the establishment of the Atmiya Sabha discussion circle in Kolkata by Ram Mohan Roy. The group promoted free thinking and fought for social reforms such as the abolition of the sati, polygamy, child marriage and the caste system, [3] setting the groundwork for the early feminist movement. [4] In 1828, Ram Mohan Roy and Debendranath Tagore founded the Brahmo Samaj religious movement, which initially aimed at reforming Hinduism, but later broke from Hindu orthodoxy entirely.

Debendranath's son Rabindranath Tagore went on to become of the foremost figures in the Renaissance, reshaping Bengali literature and music. He denounced the rule of the British Raj and advocated for Bengali independence from the empire, expounding a humanist, universalist and internationalist philosophy. [5] A staunch anti-nationalist, Tagore wrote in his essay on nationalism:

[L]ook at those who call themselves anarchists, who resent the imposition of power, in any form whatever, upon the individual. The only reason for this is that power has become too abstract—it is a scientific product made in the political laboratory of the Nation, through the dissolution of personal humanity. [6]

Bengali revolutionary movement

Aurobindo Ghose, a founder of the Bengali revolutionary movement in the early 20th century Sri aurobindo.jpg
Aurobindo Ghose, a founder of the Bengali revolutionary movement in the early 20th century
Hemchandra Kanungo (Hem Das), an independence activist that received chemical training from anarchists in Europe Hemchandra Kanungo.jpg
Hemchandra Kanungo (Hem Das), an independence activist that received chemical training from anarchists in Europe

In 1905, the first partition of Bengal was implemented by the British Raj, separating the Muslim-majority East Bengal from the Hindu-majority West Bengal, in what was described as a policy of "divide and rule". [7] [8] Spearheaded by Aurobindo Ghose, Pramathanath Mitra and Bipin Chandra Pal, secret societies such as the Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were established on both sides of the new border, aimed at training Bengalis in self-defense, with the ultimate aim of achieving independence from the British Empire. The Dhaka Anushilan Samiti led by Pulin Behari Das was particularly radical, advocating for political terrorism. [9] These societies began to collect arms and explosives, sending some senior members abroad for political and military training. Hemchandra Kanungo moved to France in 1906, to network with European revolutionaries [10] and receive education in chemistry. After meeting with Albert Libertad and Emma Goldman, Kanungo was introduced to[ citation needed ] the Russian anarchist Nicholas Safranski, who trained the Bengali revolutionary in the manufacture of explosives. [11] Upon returning to Bengal, he established a school and an explosives factory in Kolkata.

In the wake of an assassination attempt on the Presidency Magistrate Douglas Kingsford, the Alipore Bomb Case was opened, in which a number of members of the Anushilan Samiti were accused of conspiracy to "wage war against the Government". This experience led one of the accused, Sri Aurobindo, to withdraw from political activity in Bengal and moved to Pondicherry, where he dedicated himself to practicing a form of spirituality and philosophy which has been described as "radical anarchism". [12]

Bagha Jatin subsequently rose to the Jugantar leadership and developed a decentralised federated body of loose autonomous regional cells, which began to organize a series of actions throughout Bengal "to revive the confidence of the people in the movement", [13] Jatin undertook the armed robbery of banks using automobiles, 3 years before the similar crime spree committed by the Bonnot Gang. [14] After a number of assassinations attempts against colonial officials, the Governor-General of India Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound declared that: "a spirit hitherto unknown to India has come into existence (...), a spirit of anarchy and lawlessness which seeks to subvert not only British rule but the Governments of Indian chiefs..." [15] [16] Jatin was eventually arrested in connection with the Howrah-Sibpur Conspiracy case and immediately suspended armed activity following his acquittal. Nevertheless, further assassinations were undertaken, with members of Dhaka Anushilan Samiti assassinating two police officers in Mymensingh and Barisal.

Despite the repression, the British colonial authorities were unable to stop the revolutionary activity, so they conceded to revert the partition in 1911, [17] reuniting the region under the Bengal Presidency. [18] But many Bengali revolutionaries had already been forced to flee from persecution by the British authorities, one of which was Tarak Nath Das, who joined Har Dayal in attempting organize Indian emigrants and educate them on anarchist ideas, going on to establish the Ghadar Movement.

During World War I, members of the Ghadar movement, Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar attempted to organize a mutiny against British rule. Jugantar seized arms from the Rodda company and used them to commit robberies in Kolkata. During the revolt, Bagha Jatin was killed in a firefight with police, while Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were caught up in the ensuing repression, which led to the widespread arrest, internment, deportation and execution of Bengali revolutionaries. [19] After the war, the government instituted the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, which extended the state of emergency, allowing the British authorities to carry out the preventive indefinite detention and incarceration without trial of people perceived to be part of the revolutionary movement. [20] This largely drove the Bengali revolutionary movement underground, with many of its leaders fleeing to Burma to escape the repression. [21]

In the 1920s, the non-cooperation movement led by Mohandas K. Gandhi began to gain influence throughout the Indian independence movement, leading many Bengali revolutionaries to renounce violence, at the request of Chittaranjan Das. The Jugantar and Samiti experienced a brief resurgence in 1922, but the Bengal Criminal Law Amendment reinstated emergency powers which curtailed their terrorist tactics. [22] This led to the Samiti gradually disseminating itself into the Gandhian movement, with many of its members joining the Indian National Congress. Other Bengali revolutionaries, such as Sachindra Nath Sanyal and Jadugopal Mukherjee, went on to join the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.

Attacks by the Bengali revolutionary movement continued into the early 1930s. In April 1930, Surya Sen led a group of revolutionaries in a raid on the police armory in Chittagong, [23] while in December 1930, the Bengal Volunteers launched an attack on the Writers' Building. However, the revolutionary movement largely subsided by 1934, with the Samiti and Jugantar being dissolved shortly after. During the late 1930s, many Bengali revolutionaries became increasingly attracted to Marxism-Leninism, leading to the formation of the Revolutionary Socialist Party from remnants of the Samiti. By this time, anarchist ideas had lost their remaining influence in the Bengali revolutionary movement.

Pakistani Bengal

In 1947, the Second Partition of Bengal was implemented. East Bengal was brought under the Dominion of Pakistan, while West Bengal became a state of the Republic of India. Much of the East Bengali left-wing regrouped under the Awami League, which was at the forefront of Bengali nationalism and the Bengali language movement, seeking autonomy from West Pakistan. But under the One Unit scheme, East Bengal was further integrated into Pakistan and was renamed to East Pakistan.

Pakistani Bengal went through a period of repression, as the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état instituted the military dictatorship of Ayub Khan, which cracked down on the Bengali left-wing and democratic movements. The socialist Sheikh Mujibur Rahman emerged as the leader of the opposition and launched the Six point movement for greater autonomy in East Pakistan. [24] In 1969, a mass uprising in East Pakistan led to the overthrow of Ayub Khan and an electoral victory for Rahman. But the military's new leader Yahya Khan refused to recognize the results and enforced martial law over East Pakistan. As part of Operation Searchlight, the Pakistani military began to commit a genocide against the Bengali people, killing hundreds of thousands. [25] This provoked the proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence and the beginning of the Bangladesh Liberation War, which resulted in the surrender of Pakistani forces and the independence of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.

Independent Bangladesh

After the liberation of Bangladesh, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman set about implementing socialism in Bangladesh, [26] seeking to create a society free from exploitation. [27] Much of the country's industrial and financial sector was nationalized, [28] [29] [30] while much of the country's agricultural sector remained in private hands. [31] In 1975, Rahman enacted the Second Revolution, which transformed Bangladesh into a one-party state, merging the Awami League and the Communist Party into the ruling BaKSAL front. However, this state socialist revolution was brought to an abrupt end with the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in a coup d'état, which brought the country under a right-wing military dictatorship and saw the dismantling of the government's socialist policies. [32]

The Communist Party participated in the opposition movement to the military rule of Hussain Muhammad Ershad, which finally came to an end in 1990. [33] The restoration of parliamentarism [34] brought with it the renewal of political freedoms for the Bangladeshi left-wing. But this also brought with it a crisis for the Communist Party, which now came to reckon with the Revolutions of 1989 and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. The party fractured into a number of factions, one of which advocated the dissolution of the Communist Party and the reconstruction of the Bangladeshi left-wing along more democratic and libertarian lines.

In the 2000s, anarchist ideas began to spread throughout the Bangladesh workers' movement, particularly among workers in the tea and garment sectors. The National Garment Workers Federation, which had formed contact with foreign anarcho-syndicalist federations including the Industrial Workers of the World, began to gain more prominence and organized a number of mass strikes among garment workers. But it gradually began to shift away from workers' self-organization and wildcat actions, towards more bureaucratic means of trade union management. [35] The rise of anarcho-syndicalist practices had also led to the formation of the first workers' council among tea workers. [36] This surge of anarcho-syndicalism in the country culminated on May 1, 2014, with the establishment of the Bangladesh Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation (BASF), [36] which has the ultimate aim of creating a society based on liberty, mutual aid, federalism and self-management. [37] The federation is affiliated with the IWA-AIT and is particularly active in organizing tea and garment workers. [38]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian independence movement</span> Independence movement to end British rule over India

The Indian independence movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending British rule in India also known as British Raj. It lasted until 1947.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bagha Jatin</span> Indian revolutionary and independence activist (1879–1915)

Bagha Jatin or Baghajatin, born Jatindranath Mukherjee ; 7 December 1879 – 10 September 1915) was an Indian independence activist.

Emperor vs Aurobindo Ghosh and others, colloquially referred to as the Alipore Bomb Case, the Muraripukur conspiracy, or the Manicktolla bomb conspiracy, was a criminal case held in India in 1908. The case saw the trial of a number of Indian nationalists of the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta, under charges of "Waging war against the Government" of the British Raj. The trial was held at Alipore Sessions Court, Calcutta, between May 1908 and May 1909. The trial followed in the wake of the attempt on the life of Presidency Magistrate Douglas Kingsford in Muzaffarpur by Bengali nationalists Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki in April 1908, which was recognised by the Bengal police as linked to attacks against the Raj in the preceding years, including attempts to derail the train carrying Lieutenant-Governor Sir Andrew Fraser in December 1907.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anushilan Samiti</span> Fitness club and anti-British underground revolutionary organization

Anushilan Samiti was an Indian fitness club, which was actually used as an underground society for anti-British revolutionaries. In the first quarter of the 20th century it supported revolutionary violence as the means for ending British rule in India. The organisation arose from a conglomeration of local youth groups and gyms (akhara) in Bengal in 1902. It had two prominent, somewhat independent, arms in East and West Bengal, Dhaka Anushilan Samiti, and the Jugantar group.

The Revolutionary movement for Indian Independence was part of the Indian independence movement comprising the actions of violent underground revolutionary factions. Groups believing in armed revolution against the ruling British fall into this category, as opposed to the generally peaceful civil disobedience movement spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi.

Jugantar or Yugantar was one of the two main secret revolutionary trends operating in Bengal for Indian independence. This association, like Anushilan Samiti, started in the guise of suburban fitness club. Several Jugantar members were arrested, hanged, or deported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andaman and many of them joined the Communist Consolidation in the Cellular Jail.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barindra Kumar Ghosh</span> Indian revolutionary and journalist

Barindra Kumar Ghosh or Barindra Ghosh, or, popularly, Barin Ghosh was an Indian revolutionary and journalist. He was one of the founding members of Jugantar Bengali weekly, a revolutionary outfit in Bengal. Barindra Ghosh was a younger brother of Sri Aurobindo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhupendra Kumar Datta</span> Indian revolutionary

Bhupendra Kumar Dutta was an Indian freedom fighter and a revolutionary who fought for Indian independence from British rule. In addition to his other specific contributions as a Jugantar leader, he holds the record of a hunger strike for 78 days in Bilaspur Jail in December 1917.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jadugopal Mukherjee</span> Indian politician and revolutionary

Jadu Gopal Mukherjee was a Bengali Indian revolutionary who, as the successor of Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin, led the Jugantar members to recognise and accept Gandhi's movement as the culmination of their own aspiration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panchanan Chakraborty</span> Indian revolutionarist

Panchanan Chakravarti was a Bengali Indian revolutionary, one of the creators of the Revolt group after the momentary unification of the Anushilan Samiti and the Jugantar in the 1920s. Friend of the poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, he was a close associate of Subhas Chandra Bose.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhavabhushan Mitra</span> Indian revolutionary and an influential social worker

Bhavabhushan Mitra, or Bhaba Bhusan Mitter, alias Swami Satyananda Puri was a Bengali Indian freedom fighter and an influential social worker.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atulkrishna Ghosh</span>

Atulkrishna Ghosh was an Indian revolutionary, member of the Anushilan Samiti, and a leader of the Jugantar movement involved in Hindu German Conspiracy during World War I.

Pandit Mokshada Charan Samadhyayi (1874–?) was a leading figure of the Jugantar movement.

The first Christmas Day plot was a conspiracy made by the Indian revolutionary movement in 1909: during the year-ending holidays, the Governor of Bengal organised at his residence a ball in the presence of the Viceroy, the Commander-in-Chief and all the high-ranking officers and officials of the Capital (Calcutta). The 10th Jat Regiment was in charge of the security. Indoctrinated by Jatindranath Mukherjee, its soldiers decided to blow up the ballroom and take advantage of destroying the colonial Government. In keeping with his predecessor Otto von Klemm, a friend of Lokmanya Tilak, on 6 February 1910, M. Arsenyev, the Russian Consul-General, wrote to St Petersburg that it had been intended to "arouse in the country a general perturbation of minds and, thereby, afford the revolutionaries an opportunity to take the power in their hands." According to R. C. Majumdar, "The police had suspected nothing and it is hard to say what the outcome would have been had the soldiers not been betrayed by one of their comrades who informed the authorities about the impending coup".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abani Mukherji</span>

Abaninath Mukherji was an Indian communist and émigré based in the Soviet Union who co-founded the Communist Party of India. His name was often spelt Abani Mukherjee.

Jugantar Patrika was a Bengali revolutionary newspaper founded in 1906 in Calcutta by Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Abhinash Bhattacharya and Bhupendranath Dutt. A political weekly, it was founded in March 1906 and served as the propaganda organ for the nascent revolutionary organisation Anushilan Samiti that was taking shape in Bengal at the time. The journal derived its name 'Jugantar' from a political novel of the same name by Bengali author Shivnath Shastri. The journal went on to lend its name to the Western Bengal wing of the Anushilan Samiti, which came to be known as the Jugantar group. The journal expounded and justified revolutionary violence against the British Raj as a political tool for independence, and denounced the right and legitimacy of the British rule in India. It was also critical of the Indian National Congress and its moderate methods which was viewed as aiding the Raj. Its target audience was the young, literate and politically motivated youth of Bengal, and was priced at one paisa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pramathanath Mitra</span> Indian lawyer (1853–1910)

Pramathanath Mitra, known widely as P. Mitra, was a Bengali Indian barrister and Indian nationalist who was among the earliest founding members of the Indian revolutionary organisation, Anushilan Samiti.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political history of Sri Aurobindo</span>

Aurobindo's political career lasted only four years, from 1906 to 1910. Though he had been active behind the scene surveying, organizing and supporting the nationalist cause, ever since his return to India, especially during his excursions to Bengal. This period of his activity from 1906-1910 saw a complete transformation of India's political scene. Before Aurobindo began publishing his views, the Congress was an annual debating society whose rare victories had been instances of the empire taking a favourable view to its petitions. By the time Aurobindo left the field, the ideal of political independence had been firmly ingrained into the minds of people, and nineteen years later, it became the official raison d'être of the Congress.

The history of the Anushilan Samiti stretches from its beginning in 1902 to 1930. The Samiti began in the first decade of the 20th century in Calcutta as conglomeration of local youth groups and gyms(Akhra). However, its focus was both physical education and proposed moral development of its members. From its inception it sought to promote what it perceived as Indian values and to focus on Indian sports e.g. Lathi and Sword play. It also encouraged its members to study Indian history as well as those of European liberalism including the French Revolution, Russian Nihilism and Italian unification. Soon after its inception it became a radical organisation that sought to end British Raj in India through revolutionary violence. After World War I, it declined steadily as its members identified closely with leftist ideologies and with the Indian National Congress. It briefly rose to prominence in the late second and third decade, being involved in some notable incidents in Calcutta, Chittagong and in the United Provinces. The samiti dissolved into the Revolutionary Socialist Party in 1930.

The Rodda company arms heist took place on 26 August 1914 in Calcutta, British India. Members of the Jugantar faction of the Bengali revolutionary organisation Anushilan Samiti intercepted a shipment of Mauser Pistols and ammunition belonging to Messrs Rodda & co., a Calcutta gun dealer, while these were en route from the Customs house to the company's godown, and were able to make away with a portion the arms. The heist was a sensational incident, being described by The Statesman as the "Greatest daylight robbery". In the following years, the pistols and ammunitions were linked to almost all the incidences of nationalist struggles in Bengal. By 1922, the police had recovered most of the stolen arms.

References

  1. ↑ Arnold, Sir Thomas Walker (1896). The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Archibald Constable and Co. pp. 227–228.
  2. ↑ Andrew Clinton Willford (1991). Religious Resurgence in British India: Vivekananda and the Hindu Renaissance. University of California, San Diego, Department of Anthropology.
  3. ↑ Bandyopadyay, Brahendra N. (1933) Rommohan Roy. London: University Press, p. 351.
  4. ↑ Chaudhuri, Maitrayee. Feminism in India (Issues in Contemporary Indian Feminism) New York: Zed, 2005.
  5. ↑ Radhakrishnan, M.; Roychowdhury, D. (2003). ""Nationalism is a Great Menace" Tagore and Nationalism". In Patrick Colm Hogan; Lalita Pandit (eds.). Rabindranath Tagore: Universality and Tradition. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. 29–40. ISBN   9780838639801. OCLC   635928985.
  6. ↑ Tagore, Rabindranath (1918). Nationalism. London: Macmillan Publishers. p. 11.
  7. ↑ "Indian history: Partition of Bengal". Encyclopædia Britannica . 4 February 2009. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
  8. ↑ Chandra, Bipan. History of Modern India, ISBN   978-81-250-3684-5, pp. 248–249
  9. ↑ Heehs, Peter (1992), Islam, Sirajul (ed.), History of Bangladesh 1704-1971 (Vol I), Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, p. 6, ISBN   978-9845123372
  10. ↑ Ker, James Campbell (1973) [First published 1917]. Political trouble in India, 1907-1917. Calcutta: Editions Indian. pp. 129–130. OCLC   1129475950.
  11. ↑ Ker, James Campbell (1973) [First published 1917]. Political trouble in India, 1907-1917. Calcutta: Editions Indian. p. 130. OCLC   1129475950.
  12. ↑ Thompson, William Irwin (2011). "From Religion to Post-Religious Spirituality: Conclusion". Wild River Review. ISSN   1932-362X. Archived from the original on 7 March 2016.
  13. ↑ Guha, Arun Chandra (1971). First spark of revolution: the early phase of India's struggle for independence, 1900–1920. Orient Longman. p. 163. ISBN   9780883860380.
  14. ↑ Rowlatt, Sidney Arthur Taylor (1918). Sedition Committee Report 1918. Calcutta, Superintendent government printing, India. p. §68-§69.
  15. ↑ Minto Papers, M.1092, Viceroy's speech at First Meeting of Reformed Council, 25 January 1910
  16. ↑ Das, M.N. (1964) India under Morley and Minto. George Allen and Unwin. p. 122.
  17. ↑ Ludden, David (2013). India and South Asia : a short history. London: Oneworld Publications. p. 158. ISBN   9781851689361. OCLC   858011609.
  18. ↑ Robinson, Francis (1974). Separatism Among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces' Muslims, 1860–1923. Cambridge South Asian Studies. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 203. ISBN   9780521204323. OCLC   463062309.
  19. ↑ Popplewell, Richard James (1995), Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire, 1904-1924, London: Frank Cass, p. 210, ISBN   978-0-7146-4580-3
  20. ↑ Popplewell, Richard James (1995), Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire, 1904-1924, London: Frank Cass, p. 175, ISBN   978-0-7146-4580-3
  21. ↑ Morton, Stephen (2013), States of Emergency: Colonialism, Literature and Law, Liverpool University Press, p. 80, ISBN   978-1-84631-849-8
  22. ↑ Heehs, Peter (2010), "Revolutionary Terrorism in British Bengal", in Boehmer, Elleke; Morton, Stephen (eds.), Terror and the Postcolonial, Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 171–172, ISBN   978-1-4051-9154-8
  23. ↑ Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Mridula; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mahajan, Sucheta; Panikkar, K.N. (2016) [First published 1987]. India's Struggle for Independence (Revised and updated ed.). Penguin Books. pp. 251–252. ISBN   978-0-14-010781-4.
  24. ↑ "Six-point Programme". Banglapedia. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  25. ↑ Alston, Margaret (2015). Women and Climate Change in Bangladesh. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN   978-1-317-68486-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  26. ↑ Belal, Abu Syed; Marjuk, Obydullah Al (2016). "Understanding Secularism in Bangladesh". In Mercan, Muhammed Hüseyin (ed.). Transformation of the Muslim World in the 21st Century. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 157. ISBN   978-1-4438-9000-7.
  27. ↑ Phillips, Douglas A.; Gritzner, Charles F. (2007). Bangladesh. Infobase Publishing. p. 65. ISBN   978-1-4381-0485-0.
  28. ↑ Alam, S. M. Shamsul (29 April 2016). Governmentality and Counter-Hegemony in Bangladesh. Springer. ISBN   9781137526038.
  29. ↑ Ahamed, Emajuddin (1 January 1978). "Development Strategy in Bangladesh: Probable Political Consequences". Asian Survey. University of California Press. 18 (11): 1168–1180. doi:10.2307/2643299. JSTOR   2643299.
  30. ↑ Schottli, Jivanta; Mitra, Subrata K.; Wolf, Siegried (8 May 2015). A Political and Economic Dictionary of South Asia. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN   9781135355760.
  31. ↑ Planning Commission (November 1973). The First Five Year Plan (1973-78). Dacca: Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. pp. 48–49. Archived from the original on 2018-03-24. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  32. ↑ Riaz, Ali; Fair, Christine, eds. (2010). "Political Culture in Contemporary Bangladesh". Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh. Oxford: Routledge. p. 34. ISBN   978-113692-623-5.
  33. ↑ "Communist Party of Bangladesh". Banglapedia. Retrieved 2017-01-26.
  34. ↑ Baxter, Craig (1992). "Bangladesh in 1991: A Parliamentary System". Asian Survey. 32 (2): 162–167. doi:10.2307/2645214. ISSN   0004-4687. JSTOR   2645214.
  35. ↑ Marriott, Red (28 October 2010). "Tailoring to Needs: Garment Worker Struggles". Insurgent Notes. No. 2. Journal of Communist Theory and Practice. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  36. 1 2 "The Growth of Anarcho-Syndicalism in Bangladesh". Bangladesh Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation. 2019. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  37. ↑ "Aims, Principles and Statues". Bangladesh Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation. 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  38. ↑ Bangladesh Anarcho-Syndicalist Federation. "BASF". IWA-AIT.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.