Corynebacterium striatum

Last updated

Corynebacterium striatum
Corynebacterium striatum on Columbia Horse Blood Agar.jpg
Corynebacterium striatum on Columbia Horse Blood Agar (HBA)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Mycobacteriales
Family: Corynebacteriaceae
Genus: Corynebacterium
Species:
C. striatum
Binomial name
Corynebacterium striatum
(Chester 1901) Eberson 1918 (Approved Lists 1980)

Corynebacterium striatum is a bacterium that is a member of the Corynebacterium genus. [1] It is classified as non-diphtheritic. [2] The bacterium is a gram-positive prokaryote that assumes a 'club-like' morphology, more formally known as a corynebacteria structure. [1] [3] [4] It is non-lipophilic and undergoes aerobic respiration and is also a facultative anaerobe it is catalase negative and oxidase positive glucose and sucrose fermenter. [1] [3]

Contents

It is generally found as a ubiquitous microorganism, and, as a commensal of humans, colonising the nasopharynx. [1] [5] It has recently been recognised as an emerging pathogen although the genus of Corynebacterium is not usually considered to be pathogenic. Particularly in the context of human disease, Corynebacterium striatum is generally considered an opportunistic pathogenic, particularly in a nosocomial setting. [5] [6] It has been recorded to infect the skin, upper and lower respiratory tract and even disseminate, resulting in sepsis. Recent interest has been sparked in the microorganism as it is known to be resistant to and gaining resistances to many antibiotics. [7]

History

Corynebacterium striatum is a member of the genus Corynebacterium. [4] Initially the species was described in 1901. [8] Scientific papers dating back until approximately 1980 recount cases of commensal Corynebacterium striatum contaminating samples from sites of infections. A paper published in 1993 found that isolates of described Corynebacterium Stratum stored by the American Type Culture Collection and the National Collection of Type Cultures were in fact not that of Corynebacterium striatum, although the recorded sequences corresponded with other known isolates of the species. [9] From this it was determined that at the time of isolation for storage, the incorrect bacteria was stored. [9] Up until 1993 there had only been three documented cases of respiratory infections caused by the species. [10] After this it was formally defined again in 1995. [6] Coryneform bacteria had for a long time been described as commensals of humans, colonising the skin and mucous membranes without causing disease. [11] More recently Corynebacterium striatum was found to in fact be the cause of infection and disease, given the opportunity. [6] Early clinical testing of hospital patients found that infection generally only occurred in immunocompromised individuals or those that had some form of prosthetic device permanently or intermittently fitted. [2] Not long after, researchers began to propose the notion that Corynebacterium striatum was the cause of disease even in patients that did not meet such criteria. [2] [7]

Characteristics

Identification

API Strip. A series of standardised and controlled biochemical tests used in the identification of specific bacterium species. API 20E Escherichia coli 858 2.jpg
API Strip. A series of standardised and controlled biochemical tests used in the identification of specific bacterium species.

Standardised methods of identification have been developed to improve the identification and isolation of Coronyforms. One such method is the API Coryne V2.0 system. [12] API strips combine a series of small scale biochemical tests to distinguish key characteristics of bacterium, based on metabolic activity. [13] The results are interpreted via standardised indicators and charts. [13] This is a cost-effective yet time-consuming method of identification, taking approximately 16 hours, particularly in clinical settings.

More modern identification techniques include genome sequencing – particularly 16S Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Sequencing. [12] This technique relies on computerised comparison of genome sequences between bacterium. [14] The 16S rRNA sequence is highly conserved between bacterium, although will show slight variations and mutations between strains. [14] Comparison of variations in the Corynebacterium genome allow for specific identification of the Corynebacterium Striatum. It must be noted that currently this is currently a relatively expensive method of identification – when compared to the API strip, although this is improving as technologies improve. [14] The MALDI-TOF system is a clinically relevant method of detection that provides a rapid, 10 minute specific identification of bacteria. [12]

Both biochemical and molecular identification is accompanied by physical characterisation. Culturing the bacteria on blood cultures and gram staining to confirm morphology are integral additions to the process of identification. [11]

Physical

Corynebacterium diphtheriae Gram stain. The purple colour of the bacterium is indicative of the thin peptidoglycan wall surrounding the bacterium. The 'club-like' structure can be observed. This an example of a Coryneform bacterium. Corynebacterium diphtheriae Gram stain.jpg
Corynebacterium diphtheriae Gram stain. The purple colour of the bacterium is indicative of the thin peptidoglycan wall surrounding the bacterium. The 'club-like' structure can be observed. This an example of a Coryneform bacterium.

Corynebacterium striatum is a gram-positive bacterium, meaning they have a thin external peptidoglycan cell wall structure. [1] [15] They have been described as having an irregular pleomorphic shape, and are non-motile. [16] Under a microscope they appearing as a hybrid of a bacillus and cocci morphology with a bulged pole attached to rod like end, more commonly described as a 'club-like' structure. [1] [17] They are broadly described as being 1.5-8.0 micrometers in length, but formal measurement of individual clinical isolates will vary upon observation. [17] C. striatum colonies are able to be plated in vitro; when growing on Blood Agar the colonies will appear as small (1-2mm diameter) with a white, moist, and smooth appearance. [1] [18] It is otherwise called a diphtheroid or coryneform due to its close phylogenetic relationship with diphtheria causing bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae . [4]

Molecular/biochemical

Corynebacterium striatum can be differentiated from other Corynebacterium types based on its ability to ferment glucose and sucrose, and inability to ferment maltose. [1] [16] In comparison to other members of the genus Corynebacterium, it ferments sugars rapidly. [5] Corynebacterium species are also known to ferment nitrates. [16] It is also able to hydrolyse Tyrosine and Pyrazinamide. It does not metabolize urease, can hydrolyze esculin, and can also ferment mannitol and xylose. [5] In a laboratory setting, it is best distinguished from other coronyforms through its fermentative activity. They are non-lipophilic preferring to persist[ citation needed ]. Strain-specific genome-scale metabolic models have been reconstructed for the C. striatum strains 1054, 1197, 1115, and 1116. [19]

Virulence factor

The organism itself possesses few virulence factors, giving it the title of an opportunistic colonizer as opposed to a true pathogen. [7] Virulence arises from its antibiotic resistance properties. [1] The increasing acquisition of antibiotic resistance genes allow for pathogenesis of Corynebacterium striatum colonisation. [1] [6]

Antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic resistance is the acquisition of resistance to antibiotic treatments through either horizontal gene transfer or genetic mutation. [20] The acquisition of such characteristics by Corynebacterium striatum is relevant to its occurrence as a pathogen.[ citation needed ]

One study found that 93.7% of Corynebacterium striatum strains isolated showed resistance to at least one of the antimicrobial compounds tested. In this experiment, 82.5% of strains expressed resistance to the antibiotic penicillin. [7] Researchers deduced that due to the long-term exposure of Corynebacterium striatum to Penicillin resistance had been acquired by most isolates. In the same experiment, multi drug resistance was observed in 49.2% of strains. [7]

Corynebacterium striatum has been found to carry the bla gene. [7] This gene encodes a class A β-lactamase. β-lactamase are a group of antimicrobial enzymes that work to counter the effect of β-lactam antibiotics such as ampicillin and penicillin.

Further genes associated with antibiotic resistance include, but are not limited to: the gyrA gene which is attributed to resistance to the major antibiotic group fluoroquinolones, the aph(3′)-Ic gene imparting resistant to kanamycin, aph(3″)-Ib and aph(6)-Id causing resistant to streptomycin. Researchers also found that the erm(X) gene causes resistant to erythromycin [7] [21] [22]

Disease

Infection with Corynebacterium striatum was initially thought to occur through self-infection, transmitting the bacteria from a site where it persists as commensal and then allowing it to colonise in a situation as a pathogen. [2] [23] It is now understood that it can be transmitted person to person, particularly in a hospital setting. [2] [23]

While Corynebacterium infections are not common, when they have been observed it is in individuals with prosthetic devices or those who are immunosuppressed. [6] When detected under these conditions it is considered a true pathogen. Non-diphtheria Corynebacterium types are also being recognised for their impact on those suffering from long term respiratory disease. [24]

Infection

Many cases of infection with Corynebacterium striatum have been documented with particular relevance to acquisition of infection in hospitals – otherwise known as a nosocomial infection. [23] [3] Corynebacterium striatum has been known to colonise prosthetics, particularly heart valves, prosthetic joints and even intravenous apparatus such as catheters. [7] Infections of this type have been described as a local infection or they can progress into a larger disseminated infection otherwise known as bacteraemia. Other documented infections include osteomyelitis, an infection of the bone that can occur through blood born infection or injury to the bone itself. [4] [25]

One of the first described infections of an individual with Corynebacterium striatum occurred in 1980. [26] The man was severely immunocompromised, suffering already from leukemia. [26] After this, a number of isolated cases were documented. A well documented outbreak, at the Hospital Joan March, Mallorca, Spain, saw 21 individuals infected with Corynebacterium striatum. [23] The individuals all suffered from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and had also had significant tobacco exposure through their life, and as such were consistently being admitted to the hospital where they were treated by care staff with shared equipment. [23] In this instance Corynebacterium striatum was causing infection in the respiratory tract of patients and detected in sputum samples. [23] Of the 21 cases in the outbreak, there were six associated deaths. [23]

Another study of infection with Corynebacterium striatum described a patient who was admitted to hospital for treatment of cardiac arrest in 2008. [3] During her stay the patient was fitted with a central venous catheter through which she contracted bacteraemia of Corynebacterium striatum which resulted in her death. [3] The patient's age and immuno-compromised state resulting from pre-existing kidney failure ultimately allowed for the establishment and dissemination of infection. [3]

There is little to no evidence for Corynebacterium Striatum infection or colonising animal specimens.

Treatment

Multidrug resistance is the main factor considered when treating disease caused by Corynebacterium striatum. [20] [6] Treatment with a mix of broad-spectrum antibiotics may thus be necessary. The selection of further antibiotic resistance is a serious consideration that must be made when selecting patient treatment. A study into the occurrence of non-diphtheroid infections determined that of all bacterium tested, Corynebacterium Striatum had the highest occurrence, accounting for 47% of infections. [27] In the same study, it was determined that all non-diphtheroid corynebacterium were susceptible to treatment with vancomycin, quinupristin-dalfopristin, linezolid and gentamicin. [27] While multiple studies confirmed that vancomycin was highly effective on all isolated species. [10] [28] Previously it was known that Coronybacterium were susceptible to β-lactams, tetracycline, and fluoroquinolones, but recently, resistance genes to such treatments have been observed in clinical isolates. [28] Similar resistance was noted in a study with all isolates showing resistance to ciprofloxacin. [10] Of significant clinical significance is a rising resistance to beta-lactams in the last two decades, a group of antibiotics that includes penicillin. [29] Suggested oral treatments include a class of oxazolidinones - linezolid. [28] Although treatment with linezolid is not often prescribed as sustained treatment can affect liver function and have negative side effects including headaches and nausea. [30] Although differing results of susceptibility to antibiotic treatment has been noted between experiments, as such specific susceptibility of isolates should be obtained through antibiotic sensitivity testing. In clinical situations the antibiotic sensitivity can be obtained through disk diffusion assays of E-strip test. Treatment of clinical cases, such as the outbreak at the Hospital Joan March, were treated case by case, based on the antibiogram obtained from each patient's sputum sample. [23]

More broadly, prevention of initial infection, particularly in a hospital setting, is a key element of treatment. Sterilising all surfaces, and prostheses, as well as constant replacement and maintenance of prosthesis, is an integral element of stopping disease establishment. [31]

Related Research Articles

<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> Species of Gram-positive bacterium

Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin. It is often positive for catalase and nitrate reduction and is a facultative anaerobe that can grow without the need for oxygen. Although S. aureus usually acts as a commensal of the human microbiota, it can also become an opportunistic pathogen, being a common cause of skin infections including abscesses, respiratory infections such as sinusitis, and food poisoning. Pathogenic strains often promote infections by producing virulence factors such as potent protein toxins, and the expression of a cell-surface protein that binds and inactivates antibodies. S. aureus is one of the leading pathogens for deaths associated with antimicrobial resistance and the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), is a worldwide problem in clinical medicine. Despite much research and development, no vaccine for S. aureus has been approved.

<i>Pseudomonas fluorescens</i> Species of bacterium

Pseudomonas fluorescens is a common Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium. It belongs to the Pseudomonas genus; 16S rRNA analysis as well as phylogenomic analysis has placed P. fluorescens in the P. fluorescens group within the genus, to which it lends its name.

<i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> Species of bacterium

Klebsiella pneumoniae is a Gram-negative, non-motile, encapsulated, lactose-fermenting, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It appears as a mucoid lactose fermenter on MacConkey agar.

Vancomycin-resistant <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> Antibiotica resistant bacteria

Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) are strains of Staphylococcus aureus that have acquired resistance to the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin. Bacteria can acquire resistant genes either by random mutation or through the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another. Resistance genes interfere with the normal antibiotic function and allow bacteria to grow in the presence of the antibiotic. Resistance in VRSA is conferred by the plasmid-mediated vanA gene and operon. Although VRSA infections are uncommon, VRSA is often resistant to other types of antibiotics and a potential threat to public health because treatment options are limited. VRSA is resistant to many of the standard drugs used to treat S. aureus infections. Furthermore, resistance can be transferred from one bacterium to another.

<i>Corynebacterium diphtheriae</i> Species of prokaryote

Corynebacterium diphtheriae is a Gram-positive pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheria. It is also known as the Klebs–Löffler bacillus because it was discovered in 1884 by German bacteriologists Edwin Klebs (1834–1912) and Friedrich Löffler (1852–1915). The bacteria are usually harmless unless they are infected by a bacteriophage that carries a gene that gives rise to a toxin. This toxin causes the disease. Diphtheria is caused by the adhesion and infiltration of the bacteria into the mucosal layers of the body, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and the subsequent release of an exotoxin. The toxin has a localized effect on skin lesions, as well as a metastatic, proteolytic effects on other organ systems in severe infections. Originally a major cause of childhood mortality, diphtheria has been almost entirely eradicated due to the vigorous administration of the diphtheria vaccination in the 1910s.

<i>Corynebacterium</i> Genus of bacteria

Corynebacterium is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria and most are aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name.

<i>Enterobacter</i> Genus of bacteria

Enterobacter is a genus of common Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Cultures are found in soil, water, sewage, feces and gut environments. It is the type genus of the order Enterobacterales. Several strains of these bacteria are pathogenic and cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts and in those who are on mechanical ventilation. The urinary and respiratory tracts are the most common sites of infection. The genus Enterobacter is a member of the coliform group of bacteria. It does not belong to the fecal coliforms group of bacteria, unlike Escherichia coli, because it is incapable of growth at 44.5 °C in the presence of bile salts. Some of them show quorum sensing properties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antibiotic sensitivity testing</span> Microbiology test used in medicine

Antibiotic sensitivity testing or antibiotic susceptibility testing is the measurement of the susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics. It is used because bacteria may have resistance to some antibiotics. Sensitivity testing results can allow a clinician to change the choice of antibiotics from empiric therapy, which is when an antibiotic is selected based on clinical suspicion about the site of an infection and common causative bacteria, to directed therapy, in which the choice of antibiotic is based on knowledge of the organism and its sensitivities.

<i>Stenotrophomonas maltophilia</i> Species of bacterium

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is an aerobic, nonfermentative, Gram-negative bacterium. It is an uncommon bacterium and human infection is difficult to treat. Initially classified as Bacterium bookeri, then renamed Pseudomonas maltophilia, S. maltophilia was also grouped in the genus Xanthomonas before eventually becoming the type species of the genus Stenotrophomonas in 1993.

<i>Acinetobacter baumannii</i> Species of bacterium

Acinetobacter baumannii is a typically short, almost round, rod-shaped (coccobacillus) Gram-negative bacterium. It is named after the bacteriologist Paul Baumann. It can be an opportunistic pathogen in humans, affecting people with compromised immune systems, and is becoming increasingly important as a hospital-derived (nosocomial) infection. While other species of the genus Acinetobacter are often found in soil samples, it is almost exclusively isolated from hospital environments. Although occasionally it has been found in environmental soil and water samples, its natural habitat is still not known.

Dichelobacter nodosus, formerly Bacteroides nodosus, is a Gram-negative, obligate anaerobe of the family Cardiobacteriaceae. It has polar fimbriae and is the causative agent of ovine foot rot as well as interdigital dermatitis. It is the lone species in the genus Dichelobacter.

<i>Veillonella parvula</i> Species of bacterium

Veillonella parvula is a strictly anaerobic, Gram-negative, coccus-shaped bacterium in the genus Veillonella. It is a normal part of the oral flora but can be associated with diseases such as periodontitis and dental caries as well as various systemic infections, including meningitis and osteomyelitis. It has also been isolated from women with bacterial vaginosis and has been associated with hypertension together with Campylobacter rectus and Prevotella melaninogenica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plasmid-mediated resistance</span> Antibiotic resistance caused by a plasmid

Plasmid-mediated resistance is the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes which are carried on plasmids. Plasmids possess mechanisms that ensure their independent replication as well as those that regulate their replication number and guarantee stable inheritance during cell division. By the conjugation process, they can stimulate lateral transfer between bacteria from various genera and kingdoms. Numerous plasmids contain addiction-inducing systems that are typically based on toxin-antitoxin factors and capable of killing daughter cells that don't inherit the plasmid during cell division. Plasmids often carry multiple antibiotic resistance genes, contributing to the spread of multidrug-resistance (MDR). Antibiotic resistance mediated by MDR plasmids severely limits the treatment options for the infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, especially family Enterobacteriaceae. The global spread of MDR plasmids has been enhanced by selective pressure from antimicrobial medications used in medical facilities and when raising animals for food.

Corynebacterium amycolatum is a gram-positive, non-spore-forming, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacillus capable of fermentation with propionic acid as the major end product of its glucose metabolism. One of its best known relatives is Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the causative agent of diphtheria. C. amycolatum is a common component of the natural flora found on human skin and mucous membranes, and therefore is an occasional contaminant in human blood cultures but can rarely cause infections such as endocarditis.

Staphylococcus schleiferi is a Gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacterium of the family Staphylococcaceae. It is facultatively anaerobic, coagulase-variable, and can be readily cultured on blood agar where the bacterium tends to form opaque, non-pigmented colonies and beta (β) hemolysis. There exists two subspecies under the species S. schleiferi: Staphylococcus schleiferi subsp. schleiferi and Staphylococcus schleiferi subsp. coagulans.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a gram positive coccus bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus found worldwide. It is primarily a pathogen for domestic animals, but has been known to affect humans as well. S. pseudintermedius is an opportunistic pathogen that secretes immune modulating virulence factors, has many adhesion factors, and the potential to create biofilms, all of which help to determine the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Diagnoses of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius have traditionally been made using cytology, plating, and biochemical tests. More recently, molecular technologies like MALDI-TOF, DNA hybridization and PCR have become preferred over biochemical tests for their more rapid and accurate identifications. This includes the identification and diagnosis of antibiotic resistant strains.

<i>Corynebacterium ulcerans</i> Species of prokaryote

Corynebacterium ulcerans is a rod-shaped, aerobic, and Gram-positive bacterium. Most Corynebacterium species are harmless, but some cause serious illness in humans, especially in immunocompromised humans. C. ulcerans has been known to cause diphtheria and diphtheria-like infections in patients. Previously thought to simply be contaminants recovered from diphtheria patients, “coryneform” or “diphtheroids” are now believed to be the cause of such infections.

ESKAPE is an acronym comprising the scientific names of six highly virulent and antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens including: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. The acronym is sometimes extended to ESKAPEE to include Escherichia coli. This group of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can evade or 'escape' commonly used antibiotics due to their increasing multi-drug resistance (MDR). As a result, throughout the world, they are the major cause of life-threatening nosocomial or hospital-acquired infections in immunocompromised and critically ill patients who are most at risk. P. aeruginosa and S. aureus are some of the most ubiquitous pathogens in biofilms found in healthcare. P. aeruginosa is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium, commonly found in the gut flora, soil, and water that can be spread directly or indirectly to patients in healthcare settings. The pathogen can also be spread in other locations through contamination, including surfaces, equipment, and hands. The opportunistic pathogen can cause hospitalized patients to have infections in the lungs, blood, urinary tract, and in other body regions after surgery. S. aureus is a Gram-positive, cocci-shaped bacterium, residing in the environment and on the skin and nose of many healthy individuals. The bacterium can cause skin and bone infections, pneumonia, and other types of potentially serious infections if it enters the body. S. aureus has also gained resistance to many antibiotic treatments, making healing difficult. Because of natural and unnatural selective pressures and factors, antibiotic resistance in bacteria usually emerges through genetic mutation or acquires antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) through horizontal gene transfer - a genetic exchange process by which antibiotic resistance can spread.

Histophilus somni is a non-motile, gram-negative, rod or coccobacillus shaped, facultative anaerobe bacterial species belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae. Prior to 2003, it was thought Haemophilus somnus, Histophilus ovis, and Histophilus agni were three different species, but now are all classified as Histophilus somni. Histophilus somni is a commensal bacteria of mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract and reproductive tract with a global prevalence and is found in cattle and other small ruminants. Histophilus somni is also a known causative agent that is a part of the Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) complex, which typically involves multiple pathogens residing together in biofilm environments. Histophilus somni may also cause Histophilosus symptoms and clinical presentation will depend on the tissue affected. When disease does occur, it can be difficult to catch in time and is often diagnosed on post mortem. This means that treatment often involves metaphylactic mass treatment or no treatment at all. This organism is more fastidious than others and requires knowledge for sample collection, storage and culture. Genomic studies related to this bacteria have enabled scientist to pin point antibiotic resistance genes.  

<i>Corynebacterium xerosis</i> Species of prokaryote

Corynebacterium xerosis is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium in the genus Corynebacterium. Although it is frequently a harmless commensal organism living on the skin and mucus membranes, C. xerosis is also a clinically-relevant opportunistic pathogen that has been attributed to a number of different infections in animals and humans. However, its actual prominence in human medicine is up for debate due to early difficulties distinguishing it from other Corynebacterium species in clinical isolates.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Funke G, von Graevenitz A, Clarridge JE, Bernard KA (January 1997). "Clinical microbiology of coryneform bacteria". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 10 (1): 125–59. doi:10.1128/CMR.10.1.125. PMC   172946 . PMID   8993861.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Chen FL, Hsueh PR, Teng SO, Ou TY, Lee WS (June 2012). "Corynebacterium striatum bacteremia associated with central venous catheter infection". Journal of Microbiology, Immunology, and Infection = Wei Mian Yu Gan Ran Za Zhi. 45 (3): 255–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jmii.2011.09.016 . PMID   22154992.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Martín MC, Melón O, Celada MM, Alvarez J, Méndez FJ, Vázquez F (July 2003). "Septicaemia due to Corynebacterium striatum: molecular confirmation of entry via the skin". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 52 (Pt 7): 599–602. doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.05102-0 . PMID   12808083.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Bernard K (October 2012). "The genus corynebacterium and other medically relevant coryneform-like bacteria". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 50 (10): 3152–8. doi:10.1128/JCM.00796-12. PMC   3457441 . PMID   22837327.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Martínez-Martínez L, Suárez AI, Rodríguez-Baño J, Bernard K, Muniáin MA (February 1997). "Clinical significance of Corynebacterium striatum isolated from human samples". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 3 (6): 634–639. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.1997.tb00470.x . PMID   11864205.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Watkins DA, Chahine A, Creger RJ, Jacobs MR, Lazarus HM (July 1993). "Corynebacterium striatum: a diphtheroid with pathogenic potential". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 17 (1): 21–5. doi:10.1093/clinids/17.1.21. PMID   8353242.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Alibi S, Ferjani A, Boukadida J, Cano ME, Fernández-Martínez M, Martínez-Martínez L, Navas J (August 2017). "Occurrence of Corynebacterium striatum as an emerging antibiotic-resistant nosocomial pathogen in a Tunisian hospital". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 9704. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.9704A. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10081-y. PMC   5573724 . PMID   28848236.
  8. ↑ Bergey DH, Breed RS (1957). Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology (7th. ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co.
  9. 1 2 Coyle MB, Leonard RB, Nowowiejski DJ (October 1993). "Pursuit of the Corynebacterium striatum type strain". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 43 (4): 848–51. doi: 10.1099/00207713-43-4-848 . PMID   8240967.
  10. 1 2 3 Renom F, Gomila M, Garau M, Gallegos MD, Guerrero D, Lalucat J, Soriano JB (July 2014). "Respiratory infection by Corynebacterium striatum: epidemiological and clinical determinants". New Microbes and New Infections. 2 (4): 106–14. doi:10.1002/nmi2.48. PMC   4184579 . PMID   25356355.
  11. 1 2 Daisuke U, Oishi T, Yamane K, Terada K (2017). "Corynebacterium striatum Bacteremia Associated with a Catheter-Related Blood Stream Infection". Case Reports in Infectious Diseases. 2017: 2682149. doi: 10.1155/2017/2682149 . PMC   5286468 . PMID   28197349.
  12. 1 2 3 Vila J, Juiz P, Salas C, Almela M, de la Fuente CG, Zboromyrska Y, Navas J, Bosch J, Agüero J, de la Bellacasa JP, Martínez-Martínez L (May 2012). "Identification of clinically relevant Corynebacterium spp., Arcanobacterium haemolyticum, and Rhodococcus equi by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 50 (5): 1745–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.05821-11. PMC   3347156 . PMID   22337985.
  13. 1 2 "API®". bioMérieux. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  14. 1 2 3 Janda JM, Abbott SL (September 2007). "16S rRNA gene sequencing for bacterial identification in the diagnostic laboratory: pluses, perils, and pitfalls". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 45 (9): 2761–4. doi:10.1128/JCM.01228-07. PMC   2045242 . PMID   17626177.
  15. ↑ "Gram Staining". Microscopy. Retrieved 2019-05-12.
  16. 1 2 3 Martínez-Martínez L, Suárez AI, Winstanley J, Ortega MC, Bernard K (September 1995). "Phenotypic characteristics of 31 strains of Corynebacterium striatum isolated from clinical samples". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 33 (9): 2458–61. doi:10.1128/JCM.33.9.2458-2461.1995. PMC   228438 . PMID   7494046.
  17. 1 2 "Description of the Bacterial Genus - Corynebacterium". catalog.hardydiagnostics.com. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  18. ↑ tankeshwar (2013-09-08). "Colony Morphology of Bacteria; How to describe Bacterial Colonies?". Microbeonline. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  19. ↑ Bäuerle F, Döbel GO, Camus L, Heilbronner S, Dräger A (2023). "Genome-scale metabolic models consistently predict in vitro characteristics of Corynebacterium striatum". Frontiers in Bioinformatics. 3. doi: 10.3389/fbinf.2023.1214074 . ISSN   2673-7647. PMC   10626998 . PMID   37936955.
  20. 1 2 Nikaido H (2009). "Multidrug resistance in bacteria". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 78: 119–46. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.78.082907.145923. PMC   2839888 . PMID   19231985.
  21. ↑ Nie L, Lv Y, Yuan M, Hu X, Nie T, Yang X, Li G, Pang J, Zhang J, Li C, Wang X, You X (August 2014). "Genetic basis of high level aminoglycoside resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii from Beijing, China". Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B. 4 (4): 295–300. doi:10.1016/j.apsb.2014.06.004. PMC   4629078 . PMID   26579398.
  22. ↑ Ortiz-Pérez A, Martín-de-Hijas NZ, Esteban J, Fernández-Natal MI, García-Cía JI, Fernández-Roblas R (December 2010). "High frequency of macrolide resistance mechanisms in clinical isolates of Corynebacterium species". Microbial Drug Resistance. 16 (4): 273–7. doi:10.1089/mdr.2010.0032. PMID   20624090. S2CID   31356982.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Renom F, Garau M, Rubí M, Ramis F, Galmés A, Soriano JB (June 2007). "Nosocomial outbreak of Corynebacterium striatum infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 45 (6): 2064–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.00152-07. PMC   1933039 . PMID   17409213.
  24. ↑ Díez-Aguilar M, Ruiz-Garbajosa P, Fernández-Olmos A, Guisado P, Del Campo R, Quereda C, Cantón R, Meseguer MA (June 2013). "Non-diphtheriae Corynebacterium species: an emerging respiratory pathogen". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 32 (6): 769–72. doi:10.1007/s10096-012-1805-5. PMID   23271676. S2CID   17851143.
  25. ↑ "Osteomyelitis". Department of Health & Human Services. State Government of Victoria, Australia. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  26. 1 2 Bowstead TT, Santiago SM (January 1980). "Pleuropulmonary infection due to Corynebacterium striatum". British Journal of Diseases of the Chest. 74 (2): 198–200. doi:10.1016/0007-0971(80)90035-2. ISSN   0007-0971. PMID   7426360.
  27. 1 2 Neemuchwala A, Soares D, Ravirajan V, Marchand-Austin A, Kus JV, Patel SN (April 2018). "In Vitro Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Non-diphtheriae Corynebacterium Isolates in Ontario, Canada, from 2011 to 2016". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 62 (4): e01776–17. doi:10.1128/AAC.01776-17. PMC   5914010 . PMID   29339389.
  28. 1 2 3 Hahn WO, Werth BJ, Butler-Wu SM, Rakita RM (November 2016). "Multidrug-Resistant Corynebacterium striatum Associated with Increased Use of Parenteral Antimicrobial Drugs". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22 (11): 1908–1914. doi:10.3201/eid2211.160141. PMC   5088002 . PMID   27767926.
  29. ↑ Funke G, Pünter V, von Graevenitz A (December 1996). "Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of some recently established coryneform bacteria". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 40 (12): 2874–8. doi:10.1128/AAC.40.12.2874. PMC   163638 . PMID   9124857.
  30. ↑ "Linezolid". Australian Prescriber. 25 (2). March 2002. doi: 10.18773/austprescr.2002.045 . Retrieved 2019-05-26.
  31. ↑ "Basics on Processing & Sterilization". Sterile & Materials Processing Department. University of Rochester Medical Center. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.