This article is about the social phenomenon sometimes formerly called "St. Vitus' dance". For the infection resulting in jerking movements more often called by that name, see Sydenham's chorea.
Dancing mania (also known as dancing plague, choreomania, St. John's Dance, tarantism and St. Vitus' Dance) was a social phenomenon that occurred primarily in mainland Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. It involved groups of people dancing erratically, sometimes thousands at a time. The mania affected adults and children who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion and injuries, and sometimes died. One of the first major outbreaks was in Aachen, in the Holy Roman Empire (within modern-day Germany), in 1374, and it quickly spread throughout Europe; one particularly notable outbreak occurred in Strasbourg in 1518 in Alsace, also in the Holy Roman Empire (now in modern-day France).
Affecting thousands of people across several centuries, dancing mania was not an isolated event, and was well documented in contemporary reports. It was nevertheless poorly understood, and remedies were based on guesswork. Often musicians accompanied dancers, due to a belief that music would treat the mania, but this tactic sometimes backfired by encouraging more to join in. There is no consensus among modern-day scholars as to the cause of dancing mania.[1]
The several theories proposed range from religious cults being behind the processions to people dancing to relieve themselves of stress and put the poverty of the period out of their minds. It is speculated to have been a mass psychogenic illness, in which physical symptoms with no known physical cause are observed to affect a group of people, as a form of social influence.[1]
Definition
"Dancing mania" is derived from the term "choreomania", from the Greek choros (dance) and mania (madness),[2]:133–134[3] and is also known as "dancing plague".[4]:125 The term was coined by Paracelsus,[4]:126 and the condition was initially considered a curse sent by a saint,[5] usually St. John the Baptist[6]:32 or St. Vitus, and was therefore known as "St. Vitus' Dance" or "St. John's Dance". Victims of dancing mania often ended their processions at places dedicated to that saint,[2]:136 who was prayed to in an effort to end the dancing;[4]:126 incidents often broke out around the time of the feast of St. Vitus.[7]:201
St. Vitus' Dance was diagnosed, in the 17th century, as Sydenham chorea.[8] Dancing mania has also been known as epidemic chorea[4]:125 and epidemic dancing.[5] A disease of the nervous system, chorea is characterized by symptoms resembling those of dancing mania,[2]:134 which has also rather unconvincingly been considered a form of epilepsy.[6]:32
Other scientists have described dancing mania as a "collective mental disorder", "collective hysterical disorder" and "mass madness".[2]:136
Outbreaks
The earliest-known outbreak of dancing mania occurred in the 7th century.[9] One of the earliest-known incidents occurred sometime in the 1020s in Bernburg, where 18peasants began singing and dancing around a church, disturbing a Christmas Eve service.[7]:202
Further outbreaks occurred during the 13th century, including one in 1237 in which a large group of children travelled from Erfurt to Arnstadt (about 20km (12mi)), jumping and dancing all the way,[7]:201 in marked similarity to the legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, a legend that originated at around the same time.[9] Another incident, in 1278, involved about 200people dancing on a bridge over the River Meuse resulting in its collapse. Many of the survivors were restored to full health at a nearby chapel dedicated to St. Vitus.[2]:134 The first major outbreak of the mania occurred between 1373 and 1374, with incidents reported in England, Germany and the Netherlands.[6]:33
On 24 June 1374, one of the biggest outbreaks began in Aachen,[4]:126 before spreading to other places such as Cologne, Flanders, Franconia, Hainaut, Metz, Strasbourg, Tongeren, Utrecht,[6]:33 and regions and countries such as Italy and Luxembourg. Further episodes occurred in 1375 and 1376, with incidents in France, Germany, and the Netherlands,[2]:138 and in 1381, there was an outbreak in Augsburg.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred in 1418 in Strasbourg, where people fasted for days and the outbreak was possibly caused by exhaustion.[2]:137 In another outbreak, in 1428 in Schaffhausen, a monk danced to death and, in the same year, a group of women in Zürich were reportedly in a dancing frenzy.
Another of the most extensive outbreaks occurred in July 1518, in Strasbourg (see Dancing plague of 1518), where a woman began dancing in the street, and between 50 and 400 people joined her.[6]:33 Further incidents occurred during the 16th century when the mania was at its peak: in 1536 in Basel, involving a group of children; and in 1551 in Anhalt, involving just one man.[6]:37 In the 17th century, incidents of recurrent dancing were recorded by professor of medicine Gregor Horst, who noted:
Several women who annually visit the chapel of St. Vitus in Drefelhausen... dance madly all day and all night until they collapse in ecstasy. In this way they come to themselves again and feel little or nothing until the next May, when they are again... forced around St. Vitus' Day to betake themselves to that place... [o]ne of these women is said to have danced every year for the past twenty years, another for a full thirty-two.[6]:39
According to John Waller, although numerous incidents were recorded, the best documented cases are the outbreaks of 1374 and 1518, for which there is abundant contemporary evidence.[5]
Characteristics
The outbreaks of dancing mania varied, and several characteristics of it have been recorded. Generally occurring in times of hardship,[2]:136 up to tens of thousands of people would appear to dance for hours,[2]:133[10] days, weeks, and even months.[2]:132[5]
Women have often been portrayed in modern literature as the usual participants in dancing mania, although contemporary sources suggest otherwise.[2]:139 Whether the dancing was spontaneous, or an organized event, is also debated.[2]:138 What is certain, however, is that dancers seemed to be in a state of unconsciousness[7]:201 and unable to control themselves.[2]:136
In his research into social phenomena, author Robert Bartholomew notes that contemporary sources record that participants often did not reside where the dancing took place. Such people would travel from place to place, and others would join them along the way. With them they brought customs and behaviour that were strange to the local people.[2]:137 Bartholomew describes how dancers wore "strange, colorful attire" and "held wooden sticks".[2]:132
Robert Marks, in his study of hypnotism, notes that some decorated their hair with garlands.[7]:201 However, not all outbreaks involved foreigners, and not all were particularly calm. Bartholomew notes that some "paraded around naked"[2]:132 and made "obscene gestures".[2]:133 Some even had sexual intercourse.[2]:136 Others acted like animals,[2]:133 and jumped,[6]:32 hopped and leaped about.[6]:33
They hardly stopped,[10] and some danced until they broke their ribs and subsequently died.[6]:32 Throughout, dancers screamed, laughed, or cried,[2]:132 and some sang.[11]:60 Bartholomew also notes that observers of dancing mania were sometimes treated violently if they refused to join in.[2]:139 Participants demonstrated odd reactions to the color red; in A History of Madness in Sixteenth-Century Germany, Midelfort notes they "could not perceive the color red at all",[6]:32 and Bartholomew reports "it was said that dancers could not stand... the color red, often becoming violent on seeing [it]".
Bartholomew also notes that dancers "could not stand pointed shoes", and that dancers enjoyed their feet being hit.[2]:133 Throughout, those affected by dancing mania suffered from a variety of ailments, including chest pains, convulsions, hallucinations, hyperventilation,[2]:136 epileptic fits,[4]:126 and visions.[12]:71 In the end, most simply dropped down, overwhelmed with exhaustion.[4]:126 Midelfort, however, describes how some ended up in a state of ecstasy.[6]:39 Typically, the mania was contagious but it often struck small groups, such as families and individuals.[6]:37–38
In Italy, a similar phenomenon was tarantism, in which the victims were said to have been poisoned by a tarantula or scorpion. Its earliest-known outbreak was in the 13th century, and the only antidote known was to dance to particular music to separate the venom from the blood.[2]:133 It occurred only in the summer months. As with dancing mania, people would suddenly begin to dance, sometimes affected by a perceived bite or sting and were joined by others, who believed the venom from their own old bites was reactivated by the heat or the music.[2]:134 Dancers would perform a tarantella, accompanied by music which would eventually "cure" the victim, at least temporarily.[2]:135
Some participated in further activities, such as tying themselves up with vines and whipping each other, pretending to sword fight, drinking large amounts of wine, and jumping into the sea. Sufferers typically had symptoms resembling those of dancing mania, such as headaches, trembling, twitching and visions.[2]:134
As with dancing mania, participants apparently did not like the color black,[2]:133 and women were reported to be most affected.[2]:136 Unlike dancing mania, tarantism was confined to Italy and southern Europe. It was common until the 17th century, but ended suddenly, with only very small outbreaks in Italy until as late as 1959.[2]:134
A study of the phenomenon in 1959 by religious history professor Ernesto de Martino revealed that most cases of tarantism were probably unrelated to spider bites. Many participants admitted that they had not been bitten, but believed they were infected by someone who had been, or that they had simply touched a spider. The result was mass panic, with a "cure" that allowed people to behave in ways that were, normally, prohibited at the time.[2]:135 Despite their differences, tarantism and dancing mania are often considered synonymous.[2]:134
Reactions
Music was typically played during outbreaks of dancing mania, as it was thought to remedy the problem. A painting by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, after drawings by his father
As the real cause of dancing mania was unknown, many of the treatments for it were simply hopeful guesses, although in some instances they were effective. The 1374 outbreak occurred only decades after the Black Death, and was treated in a similar fashion: dancers were isolated, and some were exorcised.[12]:70 People believed that the dancing was a curse brought about by St. Vitus;[10] they responded by praying[4]:126 and making pilgrimages to places dedicated to St. Vitus.[6]:34
Prayers were also made to St. John the Baptist, who some believed also caused the dancing.[6]:32 Others claimed to be possessed by demons,[2]:136 or Satan,[10] therefore exorcisms were often performed on dancers.[11]:60 Bartholomew notes that music was often played while participants danced, as that was believed to be an effective remedy,[2]:136 and during some outbreaks musicians were even employed to play.[2]:139 Midelfort describes how the music encouraged others to join in, however, and thus effectively made things worse, as did the dancing places that were sometimes set up.[6]:35
Theories
Numerous hypotheses have been proposed for the causes of dancing mania, and it remains unclear whether it was a real illness or a social phenomenon. One of the most prominent theories is that victims suffered from ergot poisoning, which was known as St. Anthony's fire in the Middle Ages. During floods and damp periods, ergots were able to grow and affect rye and other crops. Some historians link ergot poisoning to phenomena like the dancing plagues during the late medieval and Renaissance periods, and even the Salem Witch hysteria, as suggested by Oliver Sacks.[13] Ergotism can cause hallucinations and convulsions, but cannot account for the other strange behaviour most commonly identified with dancing mania.[2]:140[4]:126[6]:43[10]
Other theories suggest that the symptoms were similar to encephalitis, epilepsy, and typhus, but as with ergotism, those conditions cannot account for all symptoms.[4]:126
Numerous sources discuss how dancing mania, and tarantism, may have simply been the result of stress and tension caused by natural disasters around the time,[6]:43 such as plagues and floods.[12]:72 The recurring waves of the Black Death, other natural disasters, would have combined with the dawn of Reformation to make for a great deal of uncertainty and challenge for the people of Europe during this time period.[14]
Hetherington and Munro describe dancing mania as a result of "shared stress";[12]:73 people may have danced to relieve themselves of the stress and poverty of the day,[12]:72 and in so doing, attempted to become ecstatic and see visions.[15]
According to Deborah Hyde, the spontaneous spread of this phenomenon through social networks played a significant role: "It’s hard to deny that the dancing mania was marked by social contagion exacerbated by stress. Outbreaks occurred along trade routes or reoccurred in the same areas – where people had knowledge of the format, in other words. Beliefs and behaviour can travel just like pathogens."[14]
Another popular theory is that the outbreaks were all staged,[12]:71 and the appearance of strange behaviour was due to its unfamiliarity.[2]:137 Religious cults may have been acting out well-organised dances, in accordance with ancient Greek and Roman rituals.[2]:136[2]:137 Despite being banned at the time, these rituals could be performed under the guise of uncontrollable dancing mania.[2]:140Justus Hecker, a 19th-century medical writer, described it as a kind of festival, where a practice known as "the kindling of the Nodfyr" was carried out. This involved jumping through fire and smoke, in an attempt to ward off disease. Bartholomew notes how participants in this ritual would often continue to jump and leap long after the flames had gone.[2]:139
It is certain that many participants of dancing mania were psychologically disturbed,[2]:136 but it is also likely that some took part out of fear,[10] or simply wished to copy everyone else.[6]:43 Sources agree that dancing mania was one of the earliest-recorded forms of mass hysteria,[2]:135[12]:73 and describe it as a "psychic epidemic", with numerous explanations that might account for the behaviour of the dancers.[6]:43 It has been suggested that the outbreaks may have been due to cultural contagion triggered, in times of particular hardship, by deeply rooted popular beliefs in the region regarding angry spirits capable of inflicting a "dancing curse" to punish their victims.[5]
The Danse Macabre, also called the Dance of Death, is an artistic genre of allegory from the Late Middle Ages on the universality of death.
Vitus, whose name is sometimes rendered Guy or Guido, was a Christian martyr from Sicily. His surviving hagiography is pure legend. The dates of his actual life are unknown. He has for long been tied to the Sicilian martyrs Modestus and Crescentia but in the earliest sources it is clear that these were originally different traditions that later became combined. The figures of Modestus and Crescentia are probably fictitious.
Ergot or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus Claviceps.
Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus—from the Latin clava "club" or clavus "nail" and -ceps for "head", i.e. the purple club-headed fungus—that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning, and Saint Anthony's fire.
Tarantism is a form of hysteric behaviour originating in Southern Italy, popularly believed to result from the bite of the wolf spider Lycosa tarantula. A better candidate cause is Latrodectus tredecimguttatus, commonly known as the Mediterranean black widow or steppe spider, although no link between such bites and the behaviour of tarantism has ever been demonstrated. However, the term historically is used to refer to a dancing mania – characteristic of Southern Italy – which likely had little to do with spider bites. The tarantella dance supposedly evolved from a therapy for tarantism.
Svetovit, Sventovit, Svantovit is the god of abundance and war, and the chief god of the Slavic tribe of the Rani, and later of all the Polabian Slavs. His organized cult was located on the island of Rügen, at Cape Arkona, where his main temple was also located. According to the descriptions of medieval chroniclers, the statue representing this god had four heads, a horn and a sword, and to the deity himself were dedicated a white horse, a saddle, a bit, a flag, and eagles. Once a year, after the harvest, a large festival was held in his honor. With the help of a horn and a horse belonging to the god, the priests carried out divinations, and at night the god himself rode a horse to fight his enemies. His name can be translated as "Strong Lord" or "Holy Lord". In the past it was often mistakenly believed that the cult of Svetovit originated from St. Vitus. Among scholars of Slavic mythology, Svetovit is often regarded as a Polabian hypostasis of Pan-Slavic god Perun. His cult was destroyed in 1168.
Chorea is an abnormal involuntary movement disorder, one of a group of neurological disorders called dyskinesias. The term chorea is derived from the Ancient Greek: χορεία, as the quick movements of the feet or hands are comparable to dancing.
Sydenham's chorea, also known as rheumatic chorea, is a disorder characterized by rapid, uncoordinated jerking movements primarily affecting the face, hands and feet. Sydenham's chorea is an autoimmune disease that results from childhood infection with Group A beta-haemolytic Streptococcus. It is reported to occur in 20–30% of people with acute rheumatic fever and is one of the major criteria for it, although it sometimes occurs in isolation. The disease occurs typically a few weeks, but up to 6 months, after the acute infection, which may have been a simple sore throat (pharyngitis).
The Tanganyika laughter epidemic of 1962 was an outbreak of mass hysteria—or mass psychogenic illness (MPI)—rumored to have occurred in or near the village of Kashasha on the western coast of Lake Victoria in Tanganyika near the border with Uganda.
The third plague pandemic was a major bubonic plague pandemic that began in Yunnan, China, in 1855. This episode of bubonic plague spread to all inhabited continents, and ultimately led to more than 12 million deaths in India and China, and at least 10 million Indians were killed in British Raj India alone, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history. According to the World Health Organization, the pandemic was considered active until 1960 when worldwide casualties dropped to 200 per year. Plague deaths have continued at a lower level for every year since.
On April 23–25, 1908, a destructive tornado outbreak affected portions of the Midwestern and Southern United States, including the Great Plains. The outbreak produced at least 31 tornadoes in 13 states, with a total of at least 324 tornado-related deaths. Of these deaths, most were caused by three long-tracked, violent tornadoes—each rated F4 on the Fujita scale and considered to be a tornado family—that occurred on April 24. Most of the deaths were in rural areas, often consisted of African Americans, and consequently may have been undercounted. One of the tornadoes killed 143 people along its path, 73 of them in the U.S. state of Mississippi, making the tornado the third deadliest in Mississippi history, following the 1936 Tupelo F5, with 216 deaths, and the 1840 Natchez tornado, with 317 deaths.
Mass psychogenic illness (MPI), also called mass sociogenic illness, mass psychogenic disorder, epidemic hysteria or mass hysteria, involves the spread of illness symptoms through a population where there is no infectious agent responsible for contagion. It is the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms affecting members of a cohesive group, originating from a nervous system disturbance involving excitation, loss, or alteration of function, whereby physical complaints that are exhibited unconsciously have no corresponding organic causes that are known.
Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These symptoms include fever, headaches, and vomiting, as well as swollen and painful lymph nodes occurring in the area closest to where the bacteria entered the skin. Acral necrosis, the dark discoloration of skin, is another symptom. Occasionally, swollen lymph nodes, known as "buboes", may break open.
The dancing plague of 1518, or dance epidemic of 1518, was a case of dancing mania that occurred in Strasbourg, Alsace, in the Holy Roman Empire from July 1518 to September 1518. Somewhere between 50 and 400 people took to dancing for weeks. There are many theories behind the phenomenon, the most popular being stress-induced mass hysteria, suggested by John Waller. Other theories include ergot and religious explanations. There is controversy concerning the number of deaths.
The 1951 Pont-Saint-Esprit mass poisoning, known in French as Le Pain Maudit, took place on 15 August 1951, in the small town of Pont-Saint-Esprit in Southern France. More than 250 people were involved, including 50 people interned in asylums, and there were seven deaths. A foodborne illness was suspected; among these it was originally believed to be a case of "cursed bread".
Madagascar has experienced several outbreaks of bubonic and pneumonic plague in the 21st century. In the outbreak beginning in 2014, 71 died; in 2017, 202 died. Smaller outbreaks occurred in January 2008, and December 2013.
Globally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 and November 2019 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru.
The 1592–1593 Malta plague epidemic was a major outbreak of plague on the island of Malta, then ruled by the Order of St John. It occurred in three waves between June 1592 and September 1593, during the second plague pandemic, and it resulted in approximately 3000 deaths, which amounted to about 11% of the population. The disease was imported to Malta by Tuscan galleys that had captured vessels from Alexandria. In 1593, the Order requested assistance from Sicily to deal with the epidemic, and the measures taken were effective in containing plague.
The Dancing Mania, an epidemic of the Middle Ages is a historical-pathological investigative book originally written and published in German by Justus Friedrich Karl Hecker (1795-1850) in 1832 as Die Tanzwuth, eine Volkskrankheit im Mittelalter: nach den Quellen für Aerzte und gebildete Nichtärzte bearbeitet. The full translated English title is The Dancing Mania, an epidemic of the Middle Ages: from the sources of physicians and non-physicians. Hecker combines multiple sources about the dancing mania, an epidemic which occurred mainly between the 14th and 17th century of the Middle Ages. The dancing mania is described by the author as a historical case of mass hysteria, and Hecker further investigates the conditions and circumstances surrounding the dancing mania during the outbreaks. The book has also been published in combination with The Black Death in the fourteenth century (1832) and The Sweating Sickness: A medical contribution to the story of the fifteenth and sixteenth century (1834) in a book called The Epidemics of the Middle Ages by doctor August Hirsch in 1865 after Hecker's death. The Dancing Mania (1832) sparked new interest in the dancing plague and mass hysteria at the time of publication, leading to much further research on the topic.
References
1 2 Sirois, F. (1982). "Perspectives on epidemic hysteria". In Colligan, M. J.; Pennebaker, J. W.; Murphy, L. R. (eds.). Mass psychogenic illness: A social psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp.217–236. ISBN0-89859-160-0.
1 2 Schullian, DM (1977). "The Dancing Pilgrims at Muelebeek". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 32 (3). Oxford University Press: 315–319. doi:10.1093/jhmas/xxxii.3.315. PMID326865.
↑ Feldman, Marc D.; Feldman, Jacqueline M.; Smith, Roxenne (1998). Stranger than fiction: when our minds betray us. American Psychiatric Press. p.191. ISBN978-0-88048-930-0.
Further reading
Dancing Mania, by Leah Esterianna & Richard the Poor of Ely
Bartholomew RE (May 1994). "Tarantism, dancing mania and demonopathy: the anthro-political aspects of 'mass psychogenic illness'". Psychol Med. 24 (2): 281–306. doi:10.1017/S0033291700027288. PMID8084927. S2CID13090774.
Donaldson LJ, Cavanagh J, Rankin J (July 1997). "The dancing plague: a public health conundrum". Public Health. 111 (4): 201–204. doi:10.1016/S0033-3506(97)00034-6. PMID9242030.
Giménez-Roldán S, Aubert G (June 2007). "Hysterical chorea: Report of an outbreak and movie documentation by Arthur Van Gehuchten (1861–1914)". Mov. Disord. 22 (8): 1071–1076. doi:10.1002/mds.21293. PMID17230482. S2CID23556702.
Hecker, Justus (1859). The dancing mania of the Middle Ages.
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