History of supernova observation

Last updated

The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova. Crab Nebula.jpg
The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova.

The known history of supernova observation goes back to 1006 AD. All earlier proposals for supernova observations are speculations with many alternatives.

Contents

Since the development of the telescope, the field of supernova discovery has expanded to other galaxies. These occurrences provide important information on the distances of galaxies. Successful models of supernova behavior have also been developed, and the role of supernovae in the star formation process is now increasingly understood.

Early history

YearObserved locationMaximum
brightness
m 		Certainty [1] of suggestion
185Centaurus−6Suggested SN, [2] also suggested comet [3] [4]
386Sagittarius+1,5Uncertain, suggested SN, [2] possible nova or supernova [5]
393Scorpius−3Possible SN, [2] [5] possible nova [5]
1006Lupus−7,5±0,4Certain: known SNR
1054Taurus−6Certain: known SNR and pulsar
1181Cassiopeia−2likely not SN (suggested, [2] [6] rejected [7] ), but activity of WR-star [8]
1572Cassiopeia−4Certain: known SNR
1604Ophiuchus−2Certain: known SNR

The earliest possible recorded supernova, known as HB9, could have been viewed and recorded by unknown Indian observers in 4500±1000  BCE . [9]

In the year 185 CE, astronomers recorded the appearance of a bright star in the sky, and observed that it took about eight months to fade from the sky. It was observed to sparkle like a star and did not move across the heavens like a comet. [3] [4] These observations are consistent with the appearance of a supernova, [4] [2] and this is believed to be the oldest confirmed record of a supernova event by humankind. SN 185 may have also possibly been recorded in Roman literature, though no records have survived. [10] The gaseous shell RCW 86 is suspected as being the remnant of this event, and recent X-ray studies show a good match for the expected age. [11] It was also recorded in the Book of the Later Han, which told the history of China from 25 to 220 AD. [12]

In 393 CE, the Chinese recorded the appearance of another "guest star", SN 393, in the modern constellation of Scorpius. [2] [13] Additional unconfirmed supernovae events may have been observed in 369 CE (unlikely SN [5] ), 386 CE (unlikely [5] ), 437 CE, 827 CE and 902 CE. [2] However these have not yet been associated with a supernova remnant, and so they remain only candidates. Over a span of about 2,000 years, Chinese astronomers recorded a total of twenty such candidate events, including later explosions noted by Islamic, European, and possibly Indian and other observers. [2] [14]

The supernova SN 1006 appeared in the southern constellation of Lupus during the year 1006 CE. This was the brightest recorded star ever to appear in the night sky, and its presence was noted in China, Egypt, Iraq, Italy, Japan and Switzerland. It may also have been noted in France, Syria, and North America. Egyptian astrologer Ali ibn Ridwan gave the brightness of this star as one-quarter the brightness of the Moon. Modern astronomers have discovered the faint remnant of this explosion and determined that it was only 7,100 light-years from the Earth. [15]

Supernova SN 1054 was another widely observed event, with astronomers recording the star's appearance in 1054 CE. It may also have been recorded, along with other supernovae, by the Ancestral Puebloans in present day New Mexico as a four pointed star shaped petroglyph. [16] This explosion appeared in the constellation of Taurus, where it produced the Crab Nebula remnant. At its peak, the luminosity of SN 1054 may have been four times as bright as Venus, and it remained visible in daylight for 23 days and was visible in the night sky for 653 days. [17] [18]

There are fewer records of supernova SN 1181, which occurred in the constellation Cassiopeia just over a century after SN 1054. It was noted by Chinese and Japanese astronomers, however. The pulsar 3C58 was considered as the most likely the stellar relic from this event. [19] The event had been under discussion for long time [7] [6] [20] but in 2021 another candidate was proposed for the remnant, the recently discovered nebula Pa 30 which has been found to be about 1000 years old. [8]

The Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe was noted for his careful observations of the night sky from his observatory on the island of Hven. In 1572 he noted the appearance of a new star, also in the constellation Cassiopeia. Later called SN 1572, this supernova was associated with a remnant during the 1960s. [21]

A common belief in Europe during this period was the Aristotelian idea that the cosmos beyond the Moon and planets was immutable (unchanging over time), so observers argued that the phenomenon was something in the Earth's atmosphere. However, Tycho noted that the object remained stationary from night to night—never changing its parallax—so it must lie far away. [22] [23] He published his observations in the small book De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella (Latin for "Concerning the new and previously unseen star") in 1573. It is from the title of this book that the modern word nova for cataclysmic variable stars is derived. [24]

Multiwavelength X-ray image of the remnant of Kepler's Supernova, SN 1604. (Chandra X-ray Observatory) Keplers supernova.jpg
Multiwavelength X-ray image of the remnant of Kepler's Supernova, SN 1604. (Chandra X-ray Observatory)

The most recent supernova to be seen in the Milky Way galaxy was SN 1604, which was observed on October 9, 1604. Several people, including Johannes van Heeck, noted the sudden appearance of this star, but it was Johannes Kepler who became noted for his systematic study of the object itself. He published his observations in the work De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii. [25]

Galileo, like Tycho before him, tried in vain to measure the parallax of this new star, and then argued against the Aristotelian view of an immutable heavens. [26] The remnant of this supernova was identified in 1941 at the Mount Wilson Observatory. [27]

Telescope observation

The true nature of the supernova remained obscure for some time. Observers slowly came to recognize a class of stars that undergo long-term periodic fluctuations in luminosity. Both John Russell Hind in 1848 and Norman Pogson in 1863 had charted stars that underwent sudden changes in brightness. However, these received little attention from the astronomical community. Finally, in 1866, English astronomer William Huggins made the first spectroscopic observations of a nova, discovering lines of hydrogen in the unusual spectrum of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis. [28] Huggins proposed a cataclysmic explosion as the underlying mechanism, and his efforts drew interest from other astronomers. [29]

Animation showing the sky position of supernovae discovered since 1885. Some recent survey contributions are highlighted in color. SN Discoveries 1885-2019.gif
Animation showing the sky position of supernovae discovered since 1885. Some recent survey contributions are highlighted in color.

In 1885, a nova-like outburst was observed in the direction of the Andromeda Galaxy by Ernst Hartwig in Estonia. S  Andromedae increased to 6th magnitude, outshining the entire nucleus of the galaxy, then faded in a manner much like a nova. In 1917, George W. Ritchey measured the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy and discovered it lay much farther than had previously been thought. This meant that S  Andromedae, which did not just lie along the line of sight to the galaxy but had actually resided in the nucleus, released a much greater amount of energy than was typical for a nova. [30]

Early work on this new category of nova was performed during the 1930s by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky at Mount Wilson Observatory. [31] They identified S Andromedae, what they considered a typical supernova, as an explosive event that released radiation approximately equal to the Sun's total energy output for 107 years. They decided to call this new class of cataclysmic variables super-novae, and postulated that the energy was generated by the gravitational collapse of ordinary stars into neutron stars. [32] The name super-novae was first used in a 1931 lecture at Caltech by Zwicky, then used publicly in 1933 at a meeting of the American Physical Society. By 1938, the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use. [33]

Although supernovae thought to occur on average about once every 50 years in the Milky Way, [34] observations of distant galaxies allowed supernovae to be discovered and examined more frequently. The first supernova detection patrol was begun by Zwicky in 1933. He was joined by Josef J. Johnson from Caltech in 1936. Using a 45-cm Schmidt telescope at Palomar observatory, they discovered twelve new supernovae within three years by comparing new photographic plates to reference images of extragalactic regions. [35]

In 1938, Walter Baade became the first astronomer to identify a nebula as a supernova remnant when he suggested that the Crab Nebula was the remains of SN 1054. He noted that, while it had the appearance of a planetary nebula, the measured velocity of expansion was much too large to belong to that classification. [36] During the same year, Baade first proposed the use of the Type Ia supernova as a secondary distance indicator. Later, the work of Allan Sandage and Gustav Tammann helped refine the process so that Type Ia supernovae became a type of standard candle for measuring large distances across the cosmos. [37] [38]

The first spectral classification of these distant supernovae was performed by Rudolph Minkowski in 1941. He categorized them into two types, based on whether or not lines of the element hydrogen appeared in the supernova spectrum. [39] Zwicky later proposed additional types III, IV, and V, although these are no longer used and now appear to be associated with single peculiar supernova types. Further sub-division of the spectra categories resulted in the modern supernova classification scheme. [40]

In the aftermath of the Second World War, Fred Hoyle worked on the problem of how the various observed elements in the universe were produced. In 1946 he proposed that a massive star could generate the necessary thermonuclear reactions, and the nuclear reactions of heavy elements were responsible for the removal of energy necessary for a gravitational collapse to occur. The collapsing star became rotationally unstable, and produced an explosive expulsion of elements that were distributed into interstellar space. [41] The concept that rapid nuclear fusion was the source of energy for a supernova explosion was developed by Hoyle and William Fowler during the 1960s. [42]

The first computer-controlled search for supernovae was begun in the 1960s at Northwestern University. They built a 24-inch telescope at Corralitos Observatory in New Mexico that could be repositioned under computer control. The telescope displayed a new galaxy each minute, with observers checking the view on a television screen. By this means, they discovered 14 supernovae over a period of two years. [43]

1970–1999

The modern standard model for Type Ia supernovae explosions is founded on a proposal by Whelan and Iben in 1973, and is based upon a mass-transfer scenario to a degenerate companion star. [44] In particular, the light curve of SN1972e in NGC 5253, which was observed for more than a year, was followed long enough to discover that after its broad "hump" in brightness, the supernova faded at a nearly constant rate of about 0.01 magnitudes per day. Translated to another system of units, this is nearly the same as the decay rate of cobalt-56 (56Co), whose half-life is 77 days. The degenerate explosion model predicts the production of about a solar mass of nickel-56 (56Ni) by the exploding star. The 56Ni decays with a half-life of 6.8 days to 56Co, and the decay of the nickel and cobalt provides the energy radiated away by the supernova late in its history. The agreement in both total energy production and the fade rate between the theoretical models and the observations of 1972e led to rapid acceptance of the degenerate-explosion model. [45]

Through observation of the light curves of many Type Ia supernovae, it was discovered that they appear to have a common peak luminosity. [46] By measuring the luminosity of these events, the distance to their host galaxy can be estimated with good accuracy. Thus this category of supernovae has become highly useful as a standard candle for measuring cosmic distances. In 1998, the High-Z Supernova Search and the Supernova Cosmology Project discovered that the most distant Type Ia supernovae appeared dimmer than expected. This has provided evidence that the expansion of the universe may be accelerating. [47] [48]

Although no supernova has been observed in the Milky Way since 1604, it appears that a supernova exploded in the constellation Cassiopeia about 300 years ago, around the year 1667 or 1680. The remnant of this explosion, Cassiopeia A —is heavily obscured by interstellar dust, which is possibly why it did not make a notable appearance. However it can be observed in other parts of the spectrum, and it is currently the brightest radio source beyond our solar system. [49]

Supernova 1987A remnant near the center Supernova-1987a.jpg
Supernova 1987A remnant near the center

In 1987, Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was observed within hours of its light reaching the Earth. It was the first supernova to be detected through its neutrino emission and the first to be observed across every band of the electromagnetic spectrum. The relative proximity of this supernova has allowed detailed observation, and it provided the first opportunity for modern theories of supernova formation to be tested against observations. [50] [51]

The rate of supernova discovery steadily increased throughout the twentieth century. [52] In the 1990s, several automated supernova search programs were initiated. The Leuschner Observatory Supernova Search program was begun in 1992 at Leuschner Observatory. It was joined the same year by the Berkeley Automated Imaging Telescope program. These were succeeded in 1996 by the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope at Lick Observatory, which was primarily used for the Lick Observatory Supernova Search (LOSS). By 2000, the Lick program resulted in the discovery of 96 supernovae, making it the world's most successful Supernova search program. [53]

In the late 1990s it was proposed that recent supernova remnants could be found by looking for gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44. This has a half-life of 90 years and the gamma rays can traverse the galaxy easily, so it permits us to see any remnants from the last millennium or so. Two sources were found, the previously discovered Cassiopeia A remnant, and the RX J0852.0-4622 remnant, which had just been discovered overlapping the Vela Supernova Remnant [54]

In 1999 a star within IC 755 was seen to explode as a supernova and named SN 1999an. IC 755 HST.jpg
In 1999 a star within IC 755 was seen to explode as a supernova and named SN 1999an.

This remnant (RX J0852.0-4622) had been found in front (apparently) of the larger Vela Supernova Remnant. [55] The gamma rays from the decay of titanium-44 showed that it must have exploded fairly recently (perhaps around 1200 AD), but there is no historical record of it. The flux of gamma rays and x-rays indicates that the supernova was relatively close to us (perhaps 200 parsecs or 600 ly). If so, this is a surprising event because supernovae less than 200 parsecs away are estimated to occur less than once per 100,000 years. [56]

2000 to present

Cosmic lens MACS J1720+35 helps Hubble to find a distant supernova. Cosmic lens MACS J1720+35 helps Hubble to find a distant supernova.jpg
Cosmic lens MACS J1720+35 helps Hubble to find a distant supernova.

SN 2003fg was discovered in a forming galaxy in 2003. The appearance of this supernova was studied in "real-time", and it has posed several major physical questions as it seems more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit would allow. [58]

First observed in September 2006, the supernova SN 2006gy, which occurred in a galaxy called NGC 1260 (240 million light-years away), is the largest and, until confirmation of luminosity of SN 2005ap in October 2007, the most luminous supernova ever observed. The explosion was at least 100 times more luminous than any previously observed supernova, [59] [60] with the progenitor star being estimated 150 times more massive than the Sun. [61] Although this had some characteristics of a Type Ia supernova, Hydrogen was found in the spectrum. [62] It is thought that SN 2006gy is a likely candidate for a pair-instability supernova. SN 2005ap, which was discovered by Robert Quimby who also discovered SN 2006gy, was about twice as bright as SN 2006gy and about 300 times as bright as a normal type II supernova. [63]

Host Galaxies of Calcium-Rich Supernovae. Host Galaxies of Calcium-Rich Supernovae.jpg
Host Galaxies of Calcium-Rich Supernovae.

On May 21, 2008, astronomers announced that they had for the first time caught a supernova on camera just as it was exploding. By chance, a burst of X-rays was noticed while looking at galaxy NGC 2770, 88 million light-years from Earth, and a variety of telescopes were aimed in that direction just in time to capture what has been named SN 2008D. "This eventually confirmed that the big X-ray blast marked the birth of a supernova," said Alicia Soderberg of Princeton University. [65]

One of the many amateur astronomers looking for supernovae, Caroline Moore, a member of the Puckett Observatory Supernova Search Team, found supernova SN 2008ha late November 2008. At the age of 14 she had been declared the youngest person ever to find a supernova. [66] [67] However, in January 2011, 10-year-old Kathryn Aurora Gray from Canada was reported to have discovered a supernova, making her the youngest ever to find a supernova. [68] Gray, her father, and a friend spotted SN 2010lt, a magnitude 17 supernova in galaxy UGC 3378 in the constellation Camelopardalis, about 240 million light years away.

Supernova SN 2012cg in spiral galaxy NGC 4424. Potw1508a.tif
Supernova SN 2012cg in spiral galaxy NGC 4424.

In 2009, researchers have found nitrates in ice cores from Antarctica at depths corresponding to the known supernovae of 1006 and 1054 AD, as well as from around 1060 AD. The nitrates were apparently formed from nitrogen oxides created by gamma rays from the supernovae. This technique should be able to detect supernovae going back several thousand years. [70]

On November 15, 2010, astronomers using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory announced that, while viewing the remnant of SN 1979C in the galaxy Messier 100, they have discovered an object which could be a young, 30-year-old black hole. NASA also noted the possibility this object could be a spinning neutron star producing a wind of high energy particles. [71]

On August 24, 2011, the Palomar Transient Factory automated survey discovered a new Type Ia supernova (SN 2011fe) in the Pinwheel Galaxy (M101) shortly after it burst into existence. Being only 21 million lightyears away and detected so early after the event started, it will allow scientists to learn more about the early developments of these types of supernovae. [72]

On March 16, 2012, a Type II supernova, designated as SN 2012aw, was discovered in M95. [73] [74] [75]

On January 22, 2014, students at the University of London Observatory spotted an exploding star SN 2014J in the nearby galaxy M82 (the Cigar Galaxy). At a distance of around 12 million light years, the supernova is one of the nearest to be observed in recent decades. [76]

A few weeks after a star exploded in the spiral galaxy NGC 2525 during the month of January 2018, NASA's Hubble Space Telescope took consecutive photos for nearly a year of the resulting Type Ia supernova, designated as SN 2018gv. [77]

Future

The estimated rate of supernova production in a galaxy the size of the Milky Way is about twice per century. This is much higher than the actual observed rate, implying that a portion of these events have been obscured from the Earth by interstellar dust. The deployment of new instruments that can observe across a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, along with neutrino detectors, means that the next such event will almost certainly be detected. [34]

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile is predicted to discover three to four million supernovae during its ten-year survey, over a broad range of distances. [78]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supernova</span> Explosion of a star at its end of life

A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. A supernova occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed to form a diffuse nebula. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1987A</span> 1987 supernova event in the constellation Dorado

SN 1987A was a type II supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. It occurred approximately 51.4 kiloparsecs from Earth and was the closest observed supernova since Kepler's Supernova. 1987A's light reached Earth on February 23, 1987, and as the earliest supernova discovered that year, was labeled "1987A". Its brightness peaked in May of that year, with an apparent magnitude of about 3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kepler's Supernova</span> Supernova visible from Earth in the 17th century

SN 1604, also known as Kepler's Supernova, Kepler's Nova or Kepler's Star, was a Type Ia supernova that occurred in the Milky Way, in the constellation Ophiuchus. Appearing in 1604, it is the most recent supernova in the Milky Way galaxy to have been unquestionably observed by the naked eye, occurring no farther than 6 kiloparsecs from Earth. Before the adoption of the current naming system for supernovae, it was named for Johannes Kepler, the German astronomer who described it in De Stella Nova.

Timeline of neutron stars, pulsars, supernovae, and white dwarfs

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crab Nebula</span> Supernova remnant in the constellation Taurus

The Crab Nebula is a supernova remnant and pulsar wind nebula in the constellation of Taurus. The common name comes from a drawing that somewhat resembled a crab with arms produced by William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, in 1842 or 1843 using a 36-inch (91 cm) telescope. The nebula was discovered by English astronomer John Bevis in 1731. It corresponds with a bright supernova recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1054 as a guest star. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified that corresponds with a historically-observed supernova explosion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1885A</span> Supernova event of August 1885 in the Andromeda Galaxy

SN 1885A was a supernova in the Andromeda Galaxy, the only one seen in that galaxy so far by astronomers. It was the first supernova ever seen outside the Milky Way, though it was not appreciated at the time how far away it was. It is also known as "Supernova 1885".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 6946</span> Galaxy in the constellations Cepheus & Cygnus

NGC 6946, sometimes referred to as the Fireworks Galaxy, is a face-on intermediate spiral galaxy with a small bright nucleus, whose location in the sky straddles the boundary between the northern constellations of Cepheus and Cygnus. Its distance from Earth is about 25.2 million light-years or 7.72 megaparsecs, similar to the distance of M101 in the constellation Ursa Major. Both were once considered to be part of the Local Group, but are now known to be among the dozen bright spiral galaxies near the Milky Way but beyond the confines of the Local Group. NGC 6946 lies within the Virgo Supercluster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1181</span> Supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia

First observed between August 4 and August 6, 1181, Chinese and Japanese astronomers recorded the supernova now known as SN 1181 in eight separate texts. One of only five supernovae in the Milky Way confidently identified in pre-telescopic records, it appeared in the constellation Cassiopeia and was visible and motionless against the fixed stars for 185 days. F. R. Stephenson first recognized that the 1181 AD "guest star" must be a supernova, because such a bright transient that lasts for 185 days and does not move in the sky can only be a galactic supernova.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1572</span> Supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia

SN 1572, or B Cassiopeiae, was a supernova of Type Ia in the constellation Cassiopeia, one of eight supernovae visible to the naked eye in historical records. It appeared in early November 1572 and was independently discovered by many individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope</span>

The Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope (KAIT) is an automated telescope used in the search for supernovae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type Ia supernova</span> Type of supernova in binary systems

A Type Ia supernova is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems in which one of the stars is a white dwarf. The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Light echo</span> Astronomical phenomenon caused by light reflected off surfaces distant from the source

A light echo is a physical phenomenon caused by light reflected off surfaces distant from the source, and arriving at the observer with a delay relative to this distance. The phenomenon is analogous to an echo of sound, but due to the much faster speed of light, it mostly only manifests itself over astronomical distances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Puckett Observatory</span> Observatory

Puckett Observatory is a private astronomical observatory located in the state of Georgia. It is owned and operated by Tim Puckett. Its primary observation goals are the study of comets and the discovery of supernovae. To facilitate the latter goal it sponsors the Puckett Observatory World Supernova Search whose astronomers have discovered 369 supernovae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 2008ha</span> Supernova in the constellation Pegasus

SN 2008ha was a type Ia supernova which was first observed around November 7, 2008 in the galaxy UGC 12682, which lies in the constellation Pegasus at a distance of about 21.3 megaparsecs (69 Mly) from Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1994I</span> Supernova event from 1994 in constellation Canes Venatici

SN 1994I is a Type Ic supernova discovered on April 2, 1994 in the Whirlpool Galaxy by amateur astronomers Tim Puckett and Jerry Armstrong of the Atlanta Astronomy Club. Type Ic supernova are a rare type of supernova that result from the explosion of a very massive star that has shed its outer layers of hydrogen and helium. The explosion results in a highly luminous burst of radiation that then dims over the course of weeks or months. SN 1994I was a relatively nearby supernova, and provided an important addition to the then small collection of known Type Ic supernova. Very early images were captured of SN 1994I, as two high school students in Oil City, Pennsylvania serendipitously took images of the Whirlpool Galaxy using the 30-inch telescope at Leuschner Observatory on March 31, 1994, which included SN 1994I just after it began to brighten.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 2011fe</span> Supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy

SN 2011fe, initially designated PTF 11kly, was a Type Ia supernova discovered by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) survey on 24 August 2011 during an automated review of images of the Messier 101 from the nights of 22 and 23 August 2011. It was located in Messier 101, the Pinwheel Galaxy, 21 million light years from Earth. It was observed by the PTF survey very near the beginning of its supernova event, when it was approximately 1 million times too dim to be visible to the naked eye. It is the youngest type Ia ever discovered. About 13 September 2011, it reached its maximum brightness of apparent magnitude +9.9 which equals an absolute magnitude of about -19, equal to 2.5 billion Suns. At +10 apparent magnitude around 5 September, SN 2011fe was visible in small telescopes. As of 30 September the supernova was at +11 apparent magnitude in the early evening sky after sunset above the northwest horizon. It had dropped to +13.7 as of 26 November 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 2014J</span> Supernova in Messier 82

SN 2014J was a type-Ia supernova in Messier 82 discovered in mid-January 2014. It was the closest type-Ia supernova discovered for 42 years, and no subsequent supernova has been closer as of 2023. The supernova was discovered by chance during an undergraduate teaching session at the University of London Observatory. It peaked on 31 January 2014, reaching an apparent magnitude of 10.5. SN 2014J was the subject of an intense observing campaign by professional astronomers and was bright enough to be seen by amateur astronomers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zombie star</span> Dwarf star remnant of a supernova

A zombie star is a hypothetical result of a Type Iax supernova which leaves behind a remnant star, rather than completely dispersing the stellar mass. Type Iax supernovae are similar to Type Ia, but have a lower ejection velocity and lower luminosity. Type Iax supernovae may occur at a rate between 5 and 30 percent of the Ia supernova rate. Thirty supernovae have been identified in this category.

iPTF14hls Supernova star

iPTF14hls is an unusual supernova star that erupted continuously for about 1,000 days beginning in September 2014 before becoming a remnant nebula. It had previously erupted in 1954. None of the theories nor proposed hypotheses fully explain all the aspects of the object.

References

  1. ↑ "SNRcat". snrcat.physics.umanitoba.ca. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Clark, D. H.; Stephenson, F. R. (June 29, 1981). "The Historical Supernovae". Supernovae: A survey of current research; Proceedings of the Advanced Study Institute. Cambridge, England: Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 355–370. Bibcode:1982ASIC...90..355C.
  3. 1 2 Chin, Y.-N.; Huang, Y.-L. (September 1994). "Identification of the guest star of AD 185 as a comet rather than a supernova". Nature. 371 (6496): 398–399. Bibcode:1994Natur.371..398C. doi:10.1038/371398a0. ISSN   0028-0836. S2CID   4240119.
  4. 1 2 3 Zhao, Fu-Yuan; Strom, R. G; Jiang, Shi-Yang (October 2006). "The Guest Star of AD185 must have been a Supernova". Chinese Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 6 (5): 635–640. Bibcode:2006ChJAA...6..635Z. doi: 10.1088/1009-9271/6/5/17 . ISSN   1009-9271.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Hoffmann, Vogt (2020). "A search for the modern counterparts of the Far Eastern guest stars 369 CE, 386 CE and 393 CE". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 497 (2): 1419–1433. arXiv: 2007.01013 . Bibcode:2020MNRAS.497.1419H. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1970 . Retrieved January 17, 2023.
  6. 1 2 Kothes, R. (December 1, 2010). "On the Distance and Age of the Pulsar Wind Nebula 3C 58". The Dynamic Interstellar Medium: A Celebration of the Canadian Galactic Plane Survey. 438: 347. arXiv: 1010.4586 . Bibcode:2010ASPC..438..347K.
  7. 1 2 Bietenholz, M. F. (July 10, 2006). "Radio Images of 3C 58: Expansion and Motion of Its Wisp". The Astrophysical Journal. 645 (2): 1180–1187. arXiv: astro-ph/0603197 . Bibcode:2006ApJ...645.1180B. doi:10.1086/504584. ISSN   0004-637X. S2CID   16820726.
  8. 1 2 Ritter, Andreas; Parker, Quentin A.; Lykou, Foteini; Zijlstra, Albert A.; Guerrero, Martín A.; Le Dû, Pascal (September 1, 2021). "The Remnant and Origin of the Historical Supernova 1181 AD". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 918 (2): L33. arXiv: 2105.12384 . Bibcode:2021ApJ...918L..33R. doi: 10.3847/2041-8213/ac2253 . hdl: 10261/255617 . ISSN   2041-8205. S2CID   235195784.
  9. ↑ Joglekar, H.; Vahia, M. N.; Sule, A. (2011). "Oldest sky-chart with Supernova record (in Kashmir)" (PDF). Purātattva: Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society (41): 207–211. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
  10. ↑ Stothers, Richard (1977). "Is the Supernova of AD 185 Recorded in Ancient Roman Literature". Isis. 68 (3): 443–447. doi:10.1086/351822. S2CID   145250371.
  11. ↑ "New evidence links stellar remains to oldest recorded supernova". ESA News. September 18, 2006. Retrieved May 24, 2006.
  12. ↑ Zielinski, Sarah. "The First Supernova". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved September 21, 2021.
  13. ↑ Wang, Z.-R.; Qu, Q. Y.; Chen, Y. (1998). "The AD 393 Guest Star; the SNR RX 51713.7-3946". Proceedings of IAU Symposium #188. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. p. 262. Bibcode:1998IAUS..188..262W.
  14. ↑ Hartmut Frommert; Christine Kronberg. "Supernovae observed in the Milky Way: Historical Supernovae". SEDS. Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  15. ↑ "Astronomers Peg Brightness of History's Brightest Star". NOIRLab (National Optical-Infrared Astronomy Research Laboratory). National Science Foundation. March 5, 2003. Archived from the original on April 2, 2023. Retrieved December 22, 2023.
  16. ↑ Greening, Dan (1995). "1054 Supernova Petrograph". Pomona College Astronomy Program. Archived from the original on January 11, 2013. Retrieved September 25, 2006.
  17. ↑ Collins II, G. W.; Claspy, W. P.; Martin, J. C. (1999). "A Reinterpretation of Historical References to the Supernova of A.D. 1054". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 111 (761): 871–880. arXiv: astro-ph/9904285 . Bibcode:1999PASP..111..871C. doi:10.1086/316401. S2CID   14452581.
  18. ↑ Brecher, K.; Fesen; Maran; Brandt (1983). "Ancient records and the Crab Nebula supernova". The Observatory. 103: 106–113. Bibcode:1983Obs...103..106B.
  19. ↑ "3C58: Pulsar Gives Insight on Ultra Dense Matter and Magnetic Fields". Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. December 14, 2004. Retrieved September 26, 2006.
  20. ↑ Bietenholz, M. F.; Kondratiev, V.; Ransom, S.; Slane, P.; Bartel, N.; Buchner, S. (May 21, 2013). "The proper motion of PSR J0205+6449 in 3C 58". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 431 (3): 2590–2598. arXiv: 1302.5625 . doi: 10.1093/mnras/stt353 . ISSN   1365-2966.
  21. ↑ Villard, R.; Sanders, R. (July 24, 1991). "Stellar survivor from 1572 AD explosion supports supernova theory". UCBerkeley News. Retrieved September 25, 2006.
  22. ↑ Cowen, R. (1999). "Danish astronomer argues for a changing cosmos". Science News. 156 (25 & 26).
  23. ↑ Nardo, Don (2007). Tycho Brahe: Pioneer of Astronomy. Compass Point Books. ISBN   978-0-7565-3309-0.
  24. ↑ Stacey, Blake. "Supernovas: Making Astronomical History". SNEWS: Supernova Early Warning System. Retrieved September 25, 2006.
  25. ↑ "Johannes Kepler: De Stella Nova". New York Society Library. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  26. ↑ Wilson, Fred L. (July 7, 1996). "History of Science: Galileo and the Rise of Mechanism". Rochester Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on June 17, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  27. ↑ Blair, Bill. "Bill Blair's Kepler's Supernova Remnant Page". NASA and Johns Hopkins University. Archived from the original on March 16, 2016. Retrieved September 20, 2006.
  28. ↑ Higgins, William (1866). "On a New Star". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 26: 275. Bibcode:1866MNRAS..26..275H.
  29. ↑ Becker, Barbara J. (1993). "Eclecticism, Opportunism, and the Evolution of a New Research Agenda: William and Margaret Huggins and the Origins of Astrophysics". University of California— Irvine. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
  30. ↑ van Zyl, Jan Eben (2003). "Variable Stars VI". Astronomical Society of Southern Africa. Archived from the original on September 23, 2006. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  31. ↑ Baade, W.; Zwicky, F. (1934). "On Super-Novae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 20 (5): 254–259. Bibcode:1934PNAS...20..254B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.20.5.254 . PMC   1076395 . PMID   16587881.
  32. ↑ Osterbrock, D. E. (1999). "Who Really Coined the Word Supernova? Who First Predicted Neutron Stars?". Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society. 33: 1330. Bibcode:2001AAS...199.1501O.
  33. ↑ Murdin, Paul; Murdin, Lesley (1985). Supernovae (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.  42. ISBN   0-521-30038-X.
  34. 1 2 Türler, Marc (2006). "INTEGRAL reveals Milky Ways' supernova rate". CERN Courier. 46 (1). Retrieved June 4, 2008.
  35. ↑ Heilbron, John Lewis (2005). The Oxford guide to the history of physics and astronomy. Vol. 10. Oxford University Press US. p. 315. ISBN   0-19-517198-5.
  36. ↑ Baade, W. (October 1938). "The Absolute Photographic Magnitude of Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal. 88: 285–304. Bibcode:1938ApJ....88..285B. doi: 10.1086/143983 .
  37. ↑ Lynden-Bell, Donald (December 24, 2010). "Allan Sandage (1926–2010)". Science. 330 (6012): 1763. Bibcode:2010Sci...330.1763L. doi: 10.1126/science.1201221 . PMID   21205661. S2CID   42304887.
  38. ↑ Perlmutter, Saul (April 2003). "Supernovae, Dark Energy, and the Accelerating Universe". Physics Today. 56 (4): 53–62. Bibcode:2003PhT....56d..53P. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.77.7990 . doi:10.1063/1.1580050.
  39. ↑ Rudolph, Minkowski (1941). "Spectra of Supernovae". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific . 53 (314): 224. Bibcode:1941PASP...53..224M. doi: 10.1086/125315 .
  40. ↑ da Silva, L. A. L. (1993). "The Classification of Supernovae". Astrophysics and Space Science. 202 (2): 215–236. Bibcode:1993Ap&SS.202..215D. doi:10.1007/BF00626878. S2CID   122727067.
  41. ↑ Hoyle, Fred (1946). "The Synthesis of the Elements of Hydrogen". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 106 (5): 343–383. Bibcode:1946MNRAS.106..343H. doi: 10.1093/mnras/106.5.343 .
  42. ↑ Woosley, S. E. (1999). "Hoyle & Fowler's Nucleosynthesis in Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal . 525C: 924. Bibcode:1999ApJ...525C.924W.
  43. ↑ Marschall, Laurence A. (1994). The supernova story. Princeton science library. Princeton University Press. pp. 112–113. ISBN   0-691-03633-0.
  44. ↑ Whelan, J.; Iben Jr., I. (1973). "Binaries and Supernovae of Type I". Astrophysical Journal . 186: 1007–1014. Bibcode:1973ApJ...186.1007W. doi:10.1086/152565.
  45. ↑ Trimble, V. (1982). "Supernovae. Part I: the events". Reviews of Modern Physics . 54 (4): 1183–1224. Bibcode:1982RvMP...54.1183T. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.54.1183. S2CID   119764262.
  46. ↑ Kowal, C. T. (1968). "Absolute magnitudes of supernovae". Astronomical Journal . 73: 1021–1024. Bibcode:1968AJ.....73.1021K. doi: 10.1086/110763 .
  47. ↑ Leibundgut, B.; Sollerman, J. (2001). "A cosmological surprise: the universe accelerates". Europhysics News. 32 (4): 121–125. Bibcode:2001ENews..32..121L. doi: 10.1051/epn:2001401 . Retrieved June 4, 2008.
  48. ↑ "Confirmation of the accelerated expansion of the Universe". Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. September 19, 2003. Retrieved November 3, 2006.
  49. ↑ "Cassiopeia A - SNR". Caltech/NASA Infrared Processing and Analysis Center. Archived from the original on January 4, 2011. Retrieved October 2, 2006.
  50. ↑ McCray, Richard (1993). "Supernova 1987A revisited". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 31 (1): 175–216. Bibcode:1993ARA&A..31..175M. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001135.
  51. ↑ Comins, Neil F.; Kaufmann, William J. (2008). Discovering the Universe: From the Stars to the Planets. Macmillan. p. 230. ISBN   978-1-4292-3042-1.
  52. ↑ Kowal, C. T.; Sargent, W. L. W. (November 1971). "Supernovae discovered since 1885". Astronomical Journal. 76: 756–764. Bibcode:1971AJ.....76..756K. doi: 10.1086/111193 .
  53. ↑ Filippenko, Alexei V.; Li, W. D.; Treffers, R. R.; Modjaz, Maryam (2001). "The Lick Observatory Supernova Search with the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope". In Bohdan Paczynski; Wen-Ping Chen; Claudia Lemme (eds.). Small Telescope Astronomy on Global Scales, IAU Colloquium 183. ASP Conference Series. Vol. 246. San Francisco. Bibcode:2001ASPC..246..121F. ISBN   1-58381-084-6.
  54. ↑ Iyudin, A. F.; et al. (November 1998). "Emission from 44Ti associated with a previously unknown Galactic supernova". Nature. 396 (6707): 142–144. Bibcode:1998Natur.396..142I. doi:10.1038/24106. S2CID   4430526.
  55. ↑ Aschenbach, Bernd (November 12, 1998). "Discovery of a young nearby supernova remnant". Letters to Nature. 396 (6707): 141–142. Bibcode:1998Natur.396..141A. doi:10.1038/24103. S2CID   4426317.
  56. ↑ Fields, B. D.; Ellis, J. (1999). "On Deep-Ocean Fe-60 as a Fossil of a Near-Earth Supernova". New Astronomy. 4 (6): 419–430. arXiv: astro-ph/9811457 . Bibcode:1999NewA....4..419F. doi:10.1016/S1384-1076(99)00034-2. S2CID   2786806.
  57. ↑ "Hubble astronomers check the prescription of a cosmic lens". ESA/Hubble Press Release. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
  58. ↑ Howell, D. A.; et al. (2006). "Snls-03d3bb: An Overluminous, Low Velocity Type Ia Supernova Discovered At Z=0.244". American Astronomical Society Meeting 208. Bibcode:2006AAS...208.0203H.
  59. ↑ Berardelli, Phil (May 7, 2007). "Star Goes Out Big Time". Science Magazine ScienceNOW Daily News. Retrieved June 4, 2008.
  60. ↑ Grey Hautaluoma; Grey Hautaluoma; Megan Watzke (May 7, 2007). "NASA's Chandra Sees Brightest Supernova Ever". NASA. Archived from the original on June 25, 2017. Retrieved June 4, 2008.
  61. ↑ Dunham, Will (May 8, 2007). "Brightest supernova ever seen". News in Science, Space and Astronomy.
  62. ↑ Shiga, David (January 3, 2007). "Brightest supernova discovery hints at stellar collision". New Scientist. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  63. ↑ Than, Ker (October 11, 2007). "Supernova blazed like 100 billion suns". NBC News. Retrieved October 17, 2007.
  64. ↑ "Host Galaxies of Calcium-Rich Supernovae" . Retrieved August 17, 2015.
  65. ↑ Anonymous (May 21, 2008). "Supernova caught exploding on camera". Reuters UK. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  66. ↑ Moore, Robert E. (November 13, 2008). "Rare supernova found by 14-year-old amateur astronomer". Deer Pond Observatory. Archived from The story about SN2008ha the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved December 19, 2008.{{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  67. ↑ Bishop, David (December 19, 2008). "Supernova 2008ha in UGC 12682". Rochester Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved December 19, 2008.
  68. ↑ Cohen, Tobi (January 3, 2011). "N.B. girl youngest ever to discover a supernova". The Vancouver Sun. Archived from the original on January 6, 2011. Retrieved January 4, 2011.
  69. ↑ "A galactic cloak for an exploding star". ESA/Hubble Picture of the Week. ESA/Hubble. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  70. ↑ "Ancient supernovae found written into the Antarctic ice". New Scientist (2698). March 4, 2009. Retrieved March 9, 2009. Refers to .
  71. ↑ Perrotto, Trent; Anderson, Janet; Watzke, Megan (November 15, 2010). "NASA'S Chandra Finds Youngest Nearby Black Hole". NASA. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved November 19, 2010.
  72. ↑ Beatty, Kelly (August 25, 2011). "Supernova Erupts in Pinwheel Galaxy". Sky & Telescope . Retrieved August 26, 2011.
  73. ↑ "Deep Sky Videos". YouTube . Retrieved March 19, 2012.
  74. ↑ Plait, Phil (March 20, 2012). "Supernova 2012aw: the pictures!". Discover Magazine. Archived from the original on March 22, 2012.
  75. ↑ "List of Recent Supernovae" . Retrieved April 8, 2012.
  76. ↑ "UCL students discover a supernova". Archived from the original on January 23, 2014. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
  77. ↑ "Hubble Watches Exploding Star Fade Into Oblivion". September 30, 2020. Retrieved May 13, 2021.
  78. ↑ "Supernovae". LSST. June 12, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2018.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.