Local Bubble

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Local Bubble
Superbubble
Galaxymap.com, map 100 parsecs (2022).png
Map of open star clusters and bright stars in the Local Bubble, viewed from top down
Observation data
Distance0  ly    (0  pc)
Physical characteristics
Radius 500 ly
DesignationsLocal Hot Bubble, LHB, [1] Local Bubble, Local Interstellar Bubble [2]
See also: Lists of nebulae

The Local Bubble, or Local Cavity, [3] is a relative cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm in the Milky Way. It contains the closest of celestial neighbours and among others, the Local Interstellar Cloud (which contains the Solar System), the neighbouring G-Cloud, the Ursa Major moving group (the closest stellar moving group) and the Hyades (the nearest open cluster). It is estimated to be at least 1000  light years in size,[ clarification needed ] and is defined by its neutral-hydrogen density of about 0.05  atoms/cm3, or approximately one tenth of the average for the ISM in the Milky Way (0.5 atoms/cm3), and one sixth that of the Local Interstellar Cloud (0.3 atoms/cm3).[ dubious – discuss ] [4]

Contents

The exceptionally sparse gas of the Local Bubble is the result of supernovae that exploded within the past ten to twenty million years. Geminga, a pulsar in the constellation Gemini, was once thought to be the remnant of a single supernova that created the Local Bubble, but now multiple supernovae in subgroup B1 of the Pleiades moving group are thought to have been responsible, [5] becoming a remnant supershell. [6] Other research suggests that the subgroups Lower Centaurus–Crux (LCC) and Upper Centaurus–Lupus (UCL), of the Scorpius–Centaurus association created both the local bubble and the Loop I Bubble. With LCC being responsible for the Local Bubble and UCL being responsible for the Loop I Bubble. [7] It was found that 14 to 20 supernovae originated from LCC and UCL, which could have formed these bubbles. [8]

Description

The Solar System has been traveling through the region currently occupied by the Local Bubble for the last five to ten million years. [9] Its current location lies in the Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC), a minor region of denser material within the Bubble. The LIC formed where the Local Bubble and the Loop I Bubble met. The gas within the LIC has a density of approximately 0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter.

The Local Bubble is not spherical, but seems to be narrower in the galactic plane, becoming somewhat egg-shaped or elliptical, and may widen above and below the galactic plane, becoming shaped like an hourglass. It abuts other bubbles of less dense interstellar medium (ISM), including, in particular, the Loop I Bubble. The Loop I Bubble was cleared, heated and maintained by supernovae and stellar winds in the Scorpius–Centaurus association, some 500 light years from the Sun. The Loop I Bubble contains the star Antares (also known as α Sco, or Alpha Scorpii), as shown on the diagram above right. Several tunnels connect the cavities of the Local Bubble with the Loop I Bubble, called the "Lupus Tunnel". [10] Other bubbles which are adjacent to the Local Bubble are the Loop II Bubble and the Loop III Bubble. In 2019, researchers found interstellar iron in Antarctica which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud, which might be related to the formation of the Local Bubble. [11]

Local stars in the galactic plane (click for rotation) Spin view local bubble with stars.gif
Local stars in the galactic plane (click for rotation)

Observation

Launched in February 2003 and active until April 2008, a small space observatory called Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer (CHIPS or CHIPSat) examined the hot gas within the Local Bubble. [12] The Local Bubble was also the region of interest for the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer mission (1992–2001), which examined hot EUV sources within the bubble. Sources beyond the edge of the bubble were identified but attenuated by the denser interstellar medium. In 2019, the first 3D map of the Local Bubble has been reported using the observations of diffuse interstellar bands. [13] In 2020, the shape of the dusty envelop surrounding the Local Bubble was retrieved and modeled from 3D maps of the dust density obtained from stellar extinction data. [14]

Impact on star formation

As the bubble expands it sweeps interstellar gas and dust which collapse to form new stars on its surface but not inside. The Sun entered the bubble around five million years ago. Localbubble formation.gif
As the bubble expands it sweeps interstellar gas and dust which collapse to form new stars on its surface but not inside. The Sun entered the bubble around five million years ago.
Local Bubble and its molecular clouds Localbubble.png
Local Bubble and its molecular clouds

In January 2022, a paper in the journal Nature found that observations and modelling had determined that the action of the expanding surface of the bubble had collected gas and debris and was responsible for the formation of all young, nearby stars. [17]

These new stars are typically in molecular clouds like the Taurus molecular cloud and the open star cluster Pleiades.

Connection to radioactive isotopes on earth

On earth several radioactive isotopes were connected to supernovae occurring relative nearby to the solar system. Such isotopes include Iron-60 from deep sea sediments, [18] Antarctic snow, [19] and lunar soil. [20] Other isotopes are Manganese-53 [21] and Plutonium-244 [22] from deep sea materials. Supernova originated Aluminium-26, which was expected from cosmic ray studies, was not confirmed. [23] Iron-60 and Manganese-53 have a peak 1.7–3.2 Million years ago and Iron-60 has a second peak 6.5–8.7 Million years ago. The older peak likely originated when the solar system moved through the Orion-Eridanus superbubble and the younger peak was generated when the solar system entered the local bubble 4.5 Million years ago. [24] One of the supernovae creating the younger peak might have created the pulsar PSR B1706-16 and turned Zeta Ophiuchi into a runaway star. Both originated from UCL and were released by a supernova 1.78 ± 0.21 Million years ago. [25] Another explanation for the older peak is that it was produced by one supernova in the Tucana-Horologium association 7-9 Million years ago. [26]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supernova</span> Explosion of a star at its end of life

A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. A supernova occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed to form a diffuse nebula. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stellar wind</span> Flow of gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a star

A stellar wind is a flow of gas ejected from the upper atmosphere of a star. It is distinguished from the bipolar outflows characteristic of young stars by being less collimated, although stellar winds are not generally spherically symmetric.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue supergiant</span> Hot, luminous star with a spectral type of B9 or earlier

A blue supergiant (BSG) is a hot, luminous star, often referred to as an OB supergiant. They have luminosity class I and spectral class B9 or earlier.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cosmic distance ladder</span> Succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects

The cosmic distance ladder is the succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to celestial objects. A direct distance measurement of an astronomical object is possible only for those objects that are "close enough" to Earth. The techniques for determining distances to more distant objects are all based on various measured correlations between methods that work at close distances and methods that work at larger distances. Several methods rely on a standard candle, which is an astronomical object that has a known luminosity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loop I Bubble</span>

The Loop I Bubble is a cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm of the Milky Way. From our Sun's point of view, it is situated towards the Galactic Center of the Milky Way galaxy. Two conspicuous tunnels connect the Local Bubble with the Loop I Bubble cavity. The Loop I Bubble is a supershell.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Local Interstellar Cloud</span> Interstellar cloud in the Milky Way Galaxy

The Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC), also known as the Local Fluff, is an interstellar cloud roughly 30 light-years (9.2 pc) across, through which the Solar System is moving. This feature overlaps with a region around the Sun referred to as the solar neighborhood. It is unknown whether the Sun is embedded in the Local Interstellar Cloud, or is in the region where the Local Interstellar Cloud is interacting with the neighboring G-Cloud. Like the G-Cloud and others, the LIC is part of the Very Local Interstellar Medium which begins where the heliosphere and interplanetary medium end, the furthest that probes have traveled.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superbubble</span> Cavity hundreds of light years across created by strong stellar winds in a galaxy

In astronomy a superbubble or supershell is a cavity which is hundreds of light years across and is populated with hot (106 K) gas atoms, less dense than the surrounding interstellar medium, blown against that medium and carved out by multiple supernovae and stellar winds. The winds, passage and gravity of newly born stars strip superbubbles of any other dust or gas. The Solar System lies near the center of an old superbubble, known as the Local Bubble, whose boundaries can be traced by a sudden rise in dust extinction of exterior stars at distances greater than a few hundred light years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Near-Earth supernova</span> Supernova close enough to have effects on the Earths biosphere

A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on Earth's biosphere.

Naturally occurring iron (26Fe) consists of four stable isotopes: 5.845% of 54Fe (possibly radioactive with a half-life over 4.4×1020 years), 91.754% of 56Fe, 2.119% of 57Fe and 0.286% of 58Fe. There are 24 known radioactive isotopes, the most stable of which are 60Fe (half-life 2.6 million years) and 55Fe (half-life 2.7 years).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orion molecular cloud complex</span> Star-forming region in the constellation Orion

The Orion molecular cloud complex is a star-forming region with stellar ages ranging up to 12 Myr. Two giant molecular clouds are a part of it, Orion A and Orion B. The stars currently forming within the complex are located within these clouds. A number of other somewhat older stars no longer associated with the molecular gas are also part of the complex, most notably the Orion's Belt, as well as the dispersed population north of it. Near the head of Orion there is also a population of young stars that is centered on Meissa. The complex is between 1 000 and 1 400 light-years away, and hundreds of light-years across.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear astrophysics</span> Field of nuclear physics and astrophysics

Nuclear astrophysics is an interdisciplinary part of both nuclear physics and astrophysics, involving close collaboration among researchers in various subfields of each of these fields. This includes, notably, nuclear reactions and their rates as they occur in cosmic environments, and modeling of astrophysical objects where these nuclear reactions may occur, but also considerations of cosmic evolution of isotopic and elemental composition (often called chemical evolution). Constraints from observations involve multiple messengers, all across the electromagnetic spectrum (nuclear gamma-rays, X-rays, optical, and radio/sub-mm astronomy), as well as isotopic measurements of solar-system materials such as meteorites and their stardust inclusions, cosmic rays, material deposits on Earth and Moon). Nuclear physics experiments address stability (i.e., lifetimes and masses) for atomic nuclei well beyond the regime of stable nuclides into the realm of radioactive/unstable nuclei, almost to the limits of bound nuclei (the drip lines), and under high density (up to neutron star matter) and high temperature (plasma temperatures up to 109 K). Theories and simulations are essential parts herein, as cosmic nuclear reaction environments cannot be realized, but at best partially approximated by experiments. In general terms, nuclear astrophysics aims to understand the origin of the chemical elements and isotopes, and the role of nuclear energy generation, in cosmic sources such as stars, supernovae, novae, and violent binary-star interactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpius–Centaurus association</span> The OB association closest to the sun

The Scorpius–Centaurus association is the nearest OB association to the Sun. This stellar association is composed of three subgroups and its distance is about 130 parsecs or 420 light-years. Using improved Hipparcos data, Rizzuto and colleagues analysed nearby stars more closely, bringing the number of known members to 436. They doubt the need to add a subclassification because they found a more continuous spread of stars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gravitational-wave astronomy</span> Branch of astronomy using gravitational waves

Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of science, concerning the observations of gravitational waves to collect relatively unique data and make inferences about objects such as neutron stars and black holes, events such as supernovae, and processes including those of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.

Aluminium-26 is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either positron emission or electron capture to stable magnesium-26. The half-life of 26Al is 717,000 years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive as a primordial nuclide, but a small amount of it is produced by collisions of atoms with cosmic ray protons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Westerhout 49</span> Strong radio source in the constellation of Sagittarius

In astronomy Westerhout 49 also known as W49, is a strong galactic thermal radio source characteristic of an HII region. It was discovered by Gart Westerhout in 1958.

BD+43 3654 is a massive luminous blue supergiant runaway star in the constellation Cygnus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">WR 102</span> Star in the constellation Sagittarius

WR 102 is a Wolf–Rayet star in the constellation Sagittarius, an extremely rare star on the WO oxygen sequence. It is a luminous and very hot star, highly evolved and close to exploding as a supernova.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">WR 93b</span> Wolf-Rayet star in the constellation of Cygnus

WR 93b is a Wolf-Rayet star in the constellation Scorpius, an extremely rare star on the WO oxygen sequence. It appears near NGC 6357 in the tail of the scorpion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Henize 70</span> H II region in the Large Magellanic Cloud

Henize 70 (N70) is a faint emission nebula and superbubble located in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is located in the constellation of Dorado.

References

  1. ↑ Egger, Roland J.; Aschenbach, Bernd (February 1995). "Interaction of the Loop I supershell with the Local Hot Bubble". Astronomy and Astrophysics . 294 (2): L25–L28. arXiv: astro-ph/9412086 . Bibcode:1995A&A...294L..25E.
  2. ↑ "NAME Local Bubble". SIMBAD . Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg . Retrieved 15 March 2014.
  3. ↑ Abt, Helmut A. (December 2015). "Hot gaseous stellar disks avoid regions of low interstellar densities". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 127 (958): 1218–1225. Bibcode:2015PASP..127.1218A. doi:10.1086/684436. S2CID   124774683.
  4. ↑ "Our local galactic neighborhood". Interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 8 February 2000. Archived from the original on 21 November 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
  5. ↑ Berghoefer, T.W.; Breitschwerdt, D. (2002). "The origin of the young stellar population in the solar neighborhood – a link to the formation of the Local Bubble?". Astronomy and Astrophysics . 390 (1): 299–306. arXiv: astro-ph/0205128v2 . Bibcode:2002A&A...390..299B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020627. S2CID   6002327.
  6. ↑ Gabel, J.R.; Bruhweiler, F.C. (8 January 1998). "[51.09] Model of an expanding supershell structure in the LISM". American Astronomical Society. Archived from the original on 15 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
  7. ↑ Maíz-Apellániz, Jesús (1 October 2001). "The Origin of the Local Bubble". The Astrophysical Journal. 560: L83–L86. doi:10.1086/324016. ISSN   0004-637X.
  8. ↑ Fuchs, B.; Breitschwerdt, D.; de Avillez, M. A.; Dettbarn, C.; Flynn, C. (1 December 2006). "The search for the origin of the Local Bubble redivivus". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 373: 993–1003. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11044.x. ISSN   0035-8711.
  9. ↑ "Local Chimney and Superbubbles". Solstation.com.
  10. ↑ Lallement, R.; Welsh, B.Y.; Vergely, J.L.; Crifo, F.; Sfeir, D. (2003). "3D mapping of the dense interstellar gas around the Local Bubble". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 411 (3): 447–464. Bibcode:2003A&A...411..447L. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20031214 .
  11. ↑ Koll, D.; et al. (2019). "Interstellar 60Fe in Antarctica". Physical Review Letters. 123 (7): 072701. Bibcode:2019PhRvL.123g2701K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.072701. hdl: 1885/298253 . PMID   31491090. S2CID   201868513.
  12. ↑ "Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer (CHIPS)". Chips.ssl.berkeley.edu. University of California – Berkeley. 12 January 2003. Archived from the original on 21 November 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
  13. ↑ Farhang, Amin; van Loon, Jacco Th.; Khosroshahi, Habib G.; Javadi, Atefeh; Bailey, Mandy (8 July 2019). "3D map of the local bubble". Nature Astronomy (letter). 3: 922–927. arXiv: 1907.07429 . doi:10.1038/s41550-019-0814-z. S2CID   197402894.
  14. ↑ Pelgrims, Vincent; Ferrière, Katia; Boulanger, Francois; Lallement, Rosine; Montier, Ludovic (April 2020). "Modeling the magnetized Local Bubble from dust data". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 636: A17. arXiv: 1911.09691 . doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937157.
  15. ↑ Zucker, Catherine; Goodman, Alyssa A.; Alves, João; Bialy, Shmuel; Foley, Michael; Speagle, Joshua S.; Großschedl, Josefa; Finkbeiner, Douglas P.; Burkert, Andreas; Khimey, Diana; Swiggum, Cameren (12 January 2022). "Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble". Nature. 601 (7893): 334–337. arXiv: 2201.05124 . Bibcode:2022Natur.601..334Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04286-5. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   35022612. S2CID   245906333.
  16. ↑ "1,000-Light-Year Wide Bubble Surrounding Earth is Source of All Nearby, Young Stars | Center for Astrophysics". www.cfa.harvard.edu. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
  17. ↑ "Star Formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble". The Local Bubble. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
  18. ↑ Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Faestermann, T.; Wallner, C.; Scholten, J.; Hillebrandt, W. (1 July 1999). "Indication for Supernova Produced 60Fe Activity on Earth". Physical Review Letters. 83: 18–21. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.18. ISSN   0031-9007.
  19. ↑ Koll, Dominik; Korschinek, Gunther; Faestermann, Thomas; Gómez-Guzmán, J. M.; Kipfstuhl, Sepp; Merchel, Silke; Welch, Jan M. (1 August 2019). "Interstellar 60Fe in Antarctica". Physical Review Letters. 123: 072701. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.072701. ISSN   0031-9007.
  20. ↑ Fimiani, L.; Cook, D. L.; Faestermann, T.; Gómez-Guzmán, J. M.; Hain, K.; Herzog, G.; Knie, K.; Korschinek, G.; Ludwig, P.; Park, J.; Reedy, R. C.; Rugel, G. (1 April 2016). "Interstellar Fe 60 on the Surface of the Moon". Physical Review Letters. 116: 151104. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.151104. ISSN   0031-9007.
  21. ↑ Korschinek, G.; Faestermann, T.; Poutivtsev, M.; Arazi, A.; Knie, K.; Rugel, G.; Wallner, A. (1 July 2020). "Supernova-Produced 53Mn on Earth". Physical Review Letters. 125: 031101. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.031101. ISSN   0031-9007.
  22. ↑ Wallner, A.; Froehlich, M. B.; Hotchkis, M. A. C.; Kinoshita, N.; Paul, M.; Martschini, M.; Pavetich, S.; Tims, S. G.; Kivel, N.; Schumann, D.; Honda, M.; Matsuzaki, H.; Yamagata, T. (1 May 2021). "60Fe and 244Pu deposited on Earth constrain the r-process yields of recent nearby supernovae". Science. 372: 742–745. doi:10.1126/science.aax3972. ISSN   0036-8075.
  23. ↑ Feige, Jenny; Wallner, Anton; Altmeyer, Randolf; Fifield, L. Keith; Golser, Robin; Merchel, Silke; Rugel, Georg; Steier, Peter; Tims, Stephen G.; Winkler, Stephan R. (1 November 2018). "Limits on Supernova-Associated Fe 60 /Al 26 Nucleosynthesis Ratios from Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Measurements of Deep-Sea Sediments". Physical Review Letters. 121: 221103. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.221103. ISSN   0031-9007.
  24. ↑ Schulreich, M. M.; Feige, J.; Breitschwerdt, D. (1 December 2023). "Numerical studies on the link between radioisotopic signatures on Earth and the formation of the Local Bubble. II. Advanced modelling of interstellar 26Al, 53Mn, 60Fe, and 244Pu influxes as traces of past supernova activity in the solar neighbourhood". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 680: A39. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202347532. ISSN   0004-6361.
  25. ↑ Neuhäuser, R.; Gießler, F.; Hambaryan, V. V. (1 October 2020). "A nearby recent supernova that ejected the runaway star ζ Oph, the pulsar PSR B1706-16, and 60Fe found on Earth". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 498: 899–917. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2629. ISSN   0035-8711.
  26. ↑ Hyde, M.; Pecaut, M. J. (1 January 2018). "Supernova ejecta in ocean cores used as time constraints for nearby stellar groups". Astronomische Nachrichten. 339: 78–86. doi:10.1002/asna.201713375. ISSN   0004-6337.

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