Type Ia supernova

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At the core of a planetary nebula, Henize 2-428, two white dwarf stars slightly under one solar mass each are expected to merge and create a Type Ia supernova destroying both in about 700 million years (artist's impression).

A Type Ia supernova (read: "type one-A") is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf. The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf. [1]

Contents

Physically, carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a low rate of rotation are limited to below 1.44 solar masses (M☉). [2] [3] Beyond this "critical mass", they reignite and in some cases trigger a supernova explosion; this critical mass is often referred to as the Chandrasekhar mass, but is marginally different from the absolute Chandrasekhar limit, where electron degeneracy pressure is unable to prevent catastrophic collapse. If a white dwarf gradually accretes mass from a binary companion, or merges with a second white dwarf, the general hypothesis is that a white dwarf's core will reach the ignition temperature for carbon fusion as it approaches the Chandrasekhar mass. Within a few seconds of initiation of nuclear fusion, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes a runaway reaction, releasing enough energy (1×1044  J ) [4] to unbind the star in a supernova explosion. [5]

The Type Ia category of supernova produces a fairly consistent peak luminosity because of the fixed critical mass at which a white dwarf will explode. Their consistent peak luminosity allows these explosions to be used as standard candles to measure the distance to their host galaxies: the visual magnitude of a type Ia supernova, as observed from Earth, indicates its distance from Earth.

Consensus model

Spectrum of SN 1998aq, a type Ia supernova, one day after maximum light in the B band SN1998aq max spectra.svg
Spectrum of SN 1998aq, a type Ia supernova, one day after maximum light in the B band

The Type Ia supernova is a subcategory in the Minkowski–Zwicky supernova classification scheme, which was devised by German-American astronomer Rudolph Minkowski and Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky. [7] There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. Theoretical astronomers long believed the progenitor star for this type of supernova is a white dwarf, and empirical evidence for this was found in 2014 when a Type Ia supernova was observed in the galaxy Messier 82. [8] When a slowly-rotating [2] carbon–oxygen white dwarf accretes matter from a companion, it can exceed the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.44  M☉, beyond which it can no longer support its weight with electron degeneracy pressure. [9] In the absence of a countervailing process, the white dwarf would collapse to form a neutron star, in an accretion-induced non-ejective process, [10] as normally occurs in the case of a white dwarf that is primarily composed of magnesium, neon, and oxygen. [11]

The current view among astronomers who model Type Ia supernova explosions, however, is that this limit is never actually attained and collapse is never initiated. Instead, the increase in pressure and density due to the increasing weight raises the temperature of the core, [3] and as the white dwarf approaches about 99% of the limit, [12] a period of convection ensues, lasting approximately 1,000 years. [13] At some point in this simmering phase, a deflagration flame front is born, powered by carbon fusion. The details of the ignition are still unknown, including the location and number of points where the flame begins. [14] Oxygen fusion is initiated shortly thereafter, but this fuel is not consumed as completely as carbon. [15]

G299 Type Ia supernova remnant. G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg
G299 Type Ia supernova remnant.

Once fusion begins, the temperature of the white dwarf increases. A main sequence star supported by thermal pressure can expand and cool which automatically regulates the increase in thermal energy. However, degeneracy pressure is independent of temperature; white dwarfs are unable to regulate temperature in the manner of normal stars, so they are vulnerable to runaway fusion reactions. The flare accelerates dramatically, in part due to the Rayleigh–Taylor instability and interactions with turbulence. It is still a matter of considerable debate whether this flare transforms into a supersonic detonation from a subsonic deflagration. [13] [16]

Regardless of the exact details of how the supernova ignites, it is generally accepted that a substantial fraction of the carbon and oxygen in the white dwarf fuses into heavier elements within a period of only a few seconds, [15] with the accompanying release of energy increasing the internal temperature to billions of degrees. The energy released (1–2×1044  J ) [17] is more than sufficient to unbind the star; that is, the individual particles making up the white dwarf gain enough kinetic energy to fly apart from each other. The star explodes violently and releases a shock wave in which matter is typically ejected at speeds on the order of 5,000–20,000 km/s, roughly 6% of the speed of light. The energy released in the explosion also causes an extreme increase in luminosity. The typical visual absolute magnitude of Type Ia supernovae is Mv = −19.3 (about 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation. [13] The Type Ia supernova leaves no compact remnant, but the whole mass of the former white dwarf dissipates through space.

The theory of this type of supernova is similar to that of novae, in which a white dwarf accretes matter more slowly and does not approach the Chandrasekhar limit. In the case of a nova, the infalling matter causes a hydrogen fusion surface explosion that does not disrupt the star. [13]

Type Ia supernovae differ from Type II supernovae, which are caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core collapses, powered by release of gravitational potential energy via neutrino emission. [18]

Formation

Progenitor IA supernova.svg
Formation process
Accretion Disk Binary System.jpg
An accretion disc forms around a compact body (such as a white dwarf) stripping gas from a companion giant star. NASA image
Type Ia supernova simulation - Argonne National Laboratory highres.jpg
Supercomputer simulation of the explosion phase of the deflagration-to-detonation model of supernova formation.

Single degenerate progenitors

One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the asymptotic giant branch, where the star's envelope expands considerably. If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass, reducing the angular momentum, orbital radius and period. After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. [19] [20] If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit.

The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions, including a subgiant or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The actual evolutionary process during this accretion stage remains uncertain, as it can depend both on the rate of accretion and the transfer of angular momentum to the white dwarf companion. [21]

It has been estimated that single degenerate progenitors account for no more than 20% of all Type Ia supernovae. [22]

Double degenerate progenitors

A second possible mechanism for triggering a Type Ia supernova is the merger of two white dwarfs whose combined mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit. The resulting merger is called a super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarf. [23] [24] In such a case, the total mass would not be constrained by the Chandrasekhar limit.

Collisions of solitary stars within the Milky Way occur only once every 107 to 1013 years; far less frequently than the appearance of novae. [25] Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of globular clusters [26] (cf. blue stragglers). A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays and they merge through their shared envelope. [27] A study based on SDSS spectra found 15 double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 years in the Milky Way: this rate matches the number of Type Ia supernovae detected in our neighborhood. [28]

A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive (2  M☉) progenitor of SN 2003fg. [29] [30] It is the only possible explanation for SNR 0509-67.5, as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out. [31] It has also been strongly suggested for SN 1006, given that no companion star remnant has been found there. [22] Observations made with NASA's Swift space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernova studied. The supergiant companion's blown out outer shell should emit X-rays, but this glow was not detected by Swift's XRT (X-ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's UVOT (ultraviolet/optical telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of SN 2011fe, the companion star must have been smaller than the Sun, if it existed. [32] The Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed that the X-ray radiation of five elliptical galaxies and the bulge of the Andromeda Galaxy is 30–50 times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess accretion discs, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae. [33] Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs are strongly-inferred candidate sources of gravitational waves, although they have not been directly observed.

Double degenerate scenarios raise questions about the applicability of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles, since total mass of the two merging white dwarfs varies significantly, meaning luminosity also varies.

Type Iax

It has been proposed that a group of sub-luminous supernovae should be classified as Type Iax. [34] [35] This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor, but instead leave behind a zombie star. [36] Known examples of type Iax supernovae include: the historical supernova SN 1181, SN 1991T, SN 1991bg, SN 2002cx, and SN 2012Z.

The supernova SN 1181 is believed to be associated with the supernova remnant Pa 30 and its central star IRAS 00500+6713, which is the result of a merger of a CO white dwarf and an ONe white dwarf. This makes Pa 30 and IRAS 00500+6713 the only SN Iax remnant in the Milky Way. [37]

Observation

Supernova remnant N103B taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. Supernova remnant N103B.jpg
Supernova remnant N103B taken by the Hubble Space Telescope.

Unlike the other types of supernovae, Type Ia supernovae generally occur in all types of galaxies, including ellipticals. They show no preference for regions of current stellar formation. [39] As white dwarf stars form at the end of a star's main sequence evolutionary period, such a long-lived star system may have wandered far from the region where it originally formed. Thereafter a close binary system may spend another million years in the mass transfer stage (possibly forming persistent nova outbursts) before the conditions are ripe for a Type Ia supernova to occur. [40]

A long-standing problem in astronomy has been the identification of supernova progenitors. Direct observation of a progenitor would provide useful constraints on supernova models. As of 2006, the search for such a progenitor had been ongoing for longer than a century. [41] Observation of the supernova SN 2011fe has provided useful constraints. Previous observations with the Hubble Space Telescope did not show a star at the position of the event, thereby excluding a red giant as the source. The expanding plasma from the explosion was found to contain carbon and oxygen, making it likely the progenitor was a white dwarf primarily composed of these elements. [42] Similarly, observations of the nearby SN PTF 11kx, [43] discovered January 16, 2011 (UT) by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF), lead to the conclusion that this explosion arises from single-degenerate progenitor, with a red giant companion, thus suggesting there is no single progenitor path to SN Ia. Direct observations of the progenitor of PTF 11kx were reported in the August 24 edition of Science and support this conclusion, and also show that the progenitor star experienced periodic nova eruptions before the supernova – another surprising discovery. [43] [44] However, later analysis revealed that the circumstellar material is too massive for the single-degenerate scenario, and fits better the core-degenerate scenario. [45]

In May 2015, NASA reported that the Kepler space observatory observed KSN 2011b, a Type Ia supernova in the process of exploding. Details of the pre-nova moments may help scientists better judge the quality of Type Ia supernovae as standard candles, which is an important link in the argument for dark energy. [46]

In September 2021, astronomers reported that the Hubble Space Telescope had taken three images of a Type Ia supernova through a gravitational lens. This supernova appeared at three different times in the evolution of its brightness due to the differing path length of the light in the three images; at −24, 92, and 107 days from peak luminosity. A fourth image will appear in 2037 allowing observation of the entire luminosity cycle of the supernova. [47]

Light curve

This plot of luminosity (relative to the Sun, L0) versus time shows the characteristic light curve for a Type Ia supernova. The peak is primarily due to the decay of nickel (Ni), while the later stage is powered by cobalt (Co). SNIacurva.png
This plot of luminosity (relative to the Sun, L0) versus time shows the characteristic light curve for a Type Ia supernova. The peak is primarily due to the decay of nickel (Ni), while the later stage is powered by cobalt (Co).
Light curve for type Ia SN 2018gv SN2018gv.gif
Light curve for type Ia SN 2018gv

Type Ia supernovae have a characteristic light curve, their graph of luminosity as a function of time after the explosion. Near the time of maximal luminosity, the spectrum contains lines of intermediate-mass elements from oxygen to calcium; these are the main constituents of the outer layers of the star. Months after the explosion, when the outer layers have expanded to the point of transparency, the spectrum is dominated by light emitted by material near the core of the star, heavy elements synthesized during the explosion; most prominently isotopes close to the mass of iron (iron-peak elements). The radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-56 produces high-energy photons, which dominate the energy output of the ejecta at intermediate to late times. [13]

The use of Type Ia supernovae to measure precise distances was pioneered by a collaboration of Chilean and US astronomers, the Calán/Tololo Supernova Survey. [48] In a series of papers in the 1990s the survey showed that while Type Ia supernovae do not all reach the same peak luminosity, a single parameter measured from the light curve can be used to correct unreddened Type Ia supernovae to standard candle values. The original correction to standard candle value is known as the Phillips relationship [49] and was shown by this group to be able to measure relative distances to 7% accuracy. [50] The cause of this uniformity in peak brightness is related to the amount of nickel-56 produced in white dwarfs presumably exploding near the Chandrasekhar limit. [51]

The similarity in the absolute luminosity profiles of nearly all known Type Ia supernovae has led to their use as a secondary standard candle in extragalactic astronomy. [52] Improved calibrations of the Cepheid variable distance scale [53] and direct geometric distance measurements to NGC 4258 from the dynamics of maser emission [54] when combined with the Hubble diagram of the Type Ia supernova distances have led to an improved value of the Hubble constant.

In 1998, observations of distant Type Ia supernovae indicated the unexpected result that the universe seems to undergo an accelerating expansion. [55] [56] Three members from two teams were subsequently awarded Nobel Prizes for this discovery. [57]

Subtypes

Supernova remnant SNR 0454-67.2 is likely the result of a Type Ia supernova explosion. Tangled -- cosmic edition SNR 0454-67.2.jpg
Supernova remnant SNR 0454-67.2 is likely the result of a Type Ia supernova explosion.

There is significant diversity within the class of Type Ia supernovae. Reflecting this, a plethora of sub-classes have been identified. Two prominent and well-studied examples include 1991T-likes, an overluminous subclass that exhibits particularly strong iron absorption lines and abnormally small silicon features, [59] and 1991bg-likes, an exceptionally dim subclass characterized by strong early titanium absorption features and rapid photometric and spectral evolution. [60] Despite their abnormal luminosities, members of both peculiar groups can be standardized by use of the Phillips relation, defined at blue wavelengths, to determine distance. [61]

See also

Related Research Articles

The Chandrasekhar limit is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about 1.4 M☉ (2.765×1030 kg). The limit was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supernova</span> Astrophysical phenomenon

A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. A supernova occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star, or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed to form a diffuse nebula. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White dwarf</span> Type of stellar remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter

A white dwarf is a stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very dense: its mass is comparable to the Sun's, while its volume is comparable to Earth's. A white dwarf's low luminosity comes from the emission of residual thermal energy; no fusion takes place in a white dwarf. The nearest known white dwarf is Sirius B, at 8.6 light years, the smaller component of the Sirius binary star. There are currently thought to be eight white dwarfs among the hundred star systems nearest the Sun. The unusual faintness of white dwarfs was first recognized in 1910. The name white dwarf was coined by Willem Jacob Luyten in 1922.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Superluminous supernova</span> Supernova at least ten times more luminous than a standard supernova

A super-luminous supernova is a type of stellar explosion with a luminosity 10 or more times higher than that of standard supernovae. Like supernovae, SLSNe seem to be produced by several mechanisms, which is readily revealed by their light-curves and spectra. There are multiple models for what conditions may produce an SLSN, including core collapse in particularly massive stars, millisecond magnetars, interaction with circumstellar material, or pair-instability supernovae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 6946</span> Galaxy in the constellations Cepheus & Cygnus

NGC 6946, sometimes referred to as the Fireworks Galaxy, is a face-on intermediate spiral galaxy with a small bright nucleus, whose location in the sky straddles the boundary between the northern constellations of Cepheus and Cygnus. Its distance from Earth is about 25.2 million light-years or 7.72 megaparsecs, similar to the distance of M101 in the constellation Ursa Major. Both were once considered to be part of the Local Group, but are now known to be among the dozen bright spiral galaxies near the Milky Way but beyond the confines of the Local Group. NGC 6946 lies within the Virgo Supercluster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 2005df</span> 2005 supernova event in the constellation Reticulum

SN 2005df was a Type Ia supernova in the barred spiral galaxy NGC 1559, which is located in the southern constellation of Reticulum. The event was discovered in Australia by Robert Evans on the early morning of August 5, 2005 with a 13.8 magnitude, and was confirmed by A. Gilmore on August 6. The supernova was classified as Type Ia by M. Salvo and associates. It was positioned at an offset of 15.0″ east and 40.0″ north of the galaxy's nucleus, reaching a maximum brightness of 12.3 on August 18. The supernova luminosity appeared unreddened by dust from its host galaxy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 1309</span> Spiral galaxy in the constellation Eridanus

NGC 1309 is a spiral galaxy located approximately 120 million light-years away, appearing in the constellation Eridanus. It is about 75,000 light-years across, and is about 3/4s the width of the Milky Way. Its shape is classified as SA(s)bc, meaning that it has moderately wound spiral arms and no ring. Bright blue areas of star formation can be seen in the spiral arms, while the yellowish central nucleus contains older-population stars. NGC 1309 is one of over 200 members of the Eridanus Group of galaxies.

Carbon detonation or carbon deflagration is the violent reignition of thermonuclear fusion in a white dwarf star that was previously slowly cooling. It involves a runaway thermonuclear process which spreads through the white dwarf in a matter of seconds, producing a type Ia supernova which releases an immense amount of energy as the star is blown apart. The carbon detonation/deflagration process leads to a supernova by a different route than the better known type II (core-collapse) supernova.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IK Pegasi</span> Star in the constellation Pegasus

IK Pegasi is a binary star system in the constellation Pegasus. It is just luminous enough to be seen with the unaided eye, at a distance of about 154 light years from the Solar System.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type Ib and Ic supernovae</span> Types of supernovae caused by a star collapsing

Type Ib and Type Ic supernovae are categories of supernovae that are caused by the stellar core collapse of massive stars. These stars have shed or been stripped of their outer envelope of hydrogen, and, when compared to the spectrum of Type Ia supernovae, they lack the absorption line of silicon. Compared to Type Ib, Type Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have lost more of their initial envelope, including most of their helium. The two types are usually referred to as stripped core-collapse supernovae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type II supernova</span> Explosion of a star 8 to 45 times the mass of the Sun

A Type II supernova or SNII results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star. A star must have at least eight times, but no more than 40 to 50 times, the mass of the Sun (M☉) to undergo this type of explosion. Type II supernovae are distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in their spectra. They are usually observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions, but not in elliptical galaxies; those are generally composed of older, low-mass stars, with few of the young, very massive stars necessary to cause a supernova.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 1993J</span> Supernova in the spiral galaxy Messier 81

SN 1993J is a supernova observed in Bode's Galaxy. It was discovered on 28 March 1993 by F. Garcia in Spain. At the time, it was the second-brightest type II supernova observed in the twentieth century behind SN 1987A, peaking at a visible apparent magnitude of 10.7 on March 30, with a second peak of 10.86 on April 18.

A helium star is a class O or B star (blue), which has extraordinarily strong helium lines and weaker than normal hydrogen lines, indicating strong stellar winds and a mass loss of the outer envelope. Extreme helium stars (EHe) entirely lack hydrogen in their spectra. Pure helium stars lie on or near a helium main sequence, analogous to the main sequence formed by the more common hydrogen stars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SN 2011fe</span> Supernova in the Pinwheel Galaxy

SN 2011fe, initially designated PTF 11kly, was a Type Ia supernova discovered by the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) survey on 24 August 2011 during an automated review of images of the Messier 101 from the nights of 22 and 23 August 2011. It was located in Messier 101, the Pinwheel Galaxy, 21 million light years from Earth. It was observed by the PTF survey very near the beginning of its supernova event, when it was approximately 1 million times too dim to be visible to the naked eye. It is the youngest type Ia ever discovered. About 13 September 2011, it reached its maximum brightness of apparent magnitude +9.9 which equals an absolute magnitude of about -19, equal to 2.5 billion Suns. At +10 apparent magnitude around 5 September, SN 2011fe was visible in small telescopes. As of 30 September the supernova was at +11 apparent magnitude in the early evening sky after sunset above the northwest horizon. It had dropped to +13.7 as of 26 November 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">KPD 1930+2752</span>

KPD 1930+2752 is a binary star system including a subdwarf B star and a probable white dwarf with relatively high mass. Due to the nature of this astronomical system, it seems like a likely candidate for a potential type Ia supernova, a type of supernova which occurs when a white dwarf star takes on enough matter to approach the Chandrasekhar limit, the point at which electron degeneracy pressure would not be enough to support its mass. However, carbon fusion would occur before this limit was reached, releasing enough energy to overcome the force of gravity holding the star together and resulting in a supernova.

In astronomy, a calcium-rich supernova is a subclass of supernovae that, in contrast to more well-known traditional supernova classes, are fainter and produce unusually large amounts of calcium. Since their luminosity is located in a gap between that of novae and other supernovae, they are also referred to as "gap" transients. Only around 15 events have been classified as a calcium-rich supernova – a combination of their intrinsic rarity and low luminosity make new discoveries and their subsequent study difficult. This makes calcium-rich supernovae one of the most mysterious supernova subclasses currently known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Type Iax supernova</span> Dwarf star remnant of a supernova

A type Iax supernova is a rare subtype of type Ia supernova, which leaves behind a remnant star, known as zombie star, rather than completely dispersing the white dwarf. Type Iax supernovae are similar to type Ia, but have a lower ejection velocity and lower luminosity. Type Iax supernovae may occur at a rate between 5 and 30 percent of the Ia supernova rate. As of October 2014, thirty supernovae had been identified in this category.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypernova</span> Supernova that ejects a large mass at unusually high velocity

A hypernova is a very energetic supernova which is believed to result from an extreme core collapse scenario. In this case, a massive star collapses to form a rotating black hole emitting twin astrophysical jets and surrounded by an accretion disk. It is a type of stellar explosion that ejects material with an unusually high kinetic energy, an order of magnitude higher than most supernovae, with a luminosity at least 10 times greater. Hypernovae release such intense gamma rays that they often appear similar to a type Ic supernova, but with unusually broad spectral lines indicating an extremely high expansion velocity. Hypernovae are one of the mechanisms for producing long gamma ray bursts (GRBs), which range from 2 seconds to over a minute in duration. They have also been referred to as superluminous supernovae, though that classification also includes other types of extremely luminous stellar explosions that have different origins.

Ken'ichi Nomoto is a Japanese astrophysicist and astronomer, known for his research on stellar evolution, supernovae, and the origin of heavy elements.

References

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