Location of Earth

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Earth Location
Extended logarithmic universe illustration.pngEarthMoonSunVenusMercuryHalley's CometMarsPhobosDeimosAsteroid BeltAsteroid BeltAsteroid BeltCeresVestaPallasHygieaJupiterIoCallistoEuropaGanymedeʻOumuamuaSaturnDioneTitanUranusNeptuneTritonPlutoHaumeaMakemakeErisSalaciaSednaGonggongProxima CentauriAlpha CentauriArcturusPleiadesCapellaProcyonLuhman 16Van Maanen's StarAldebaranCanopusCarina NebulaSiriusVegaTau CetiUY ScutiLalande 21185BetelgeuseAntaresRigelPolluxAcruxOmega NebulaRing NebulaLuyten 726-8GacruxEagle NebulaHorsehead NebulaMilky Way GalaxyPerseus ArmLarge Magellanic CloudSmall Magellanic CloudOmega CentauriTerzan 1Andromeda GalaxyTriangulum GalaxyWLM GalaxyNGC 300The Whale GalaxyCaldwell 5Cetus ABlack Eye GalaxyWhirlpool GalaxyAntennae GalaxiesCaldwell 101Pinwheel GalaxyNGC 1300Sombrero GalaxyCartwheel GalaxyM100Arp 194 GalaxyNGC 7319Barnard's StarWolf 359CastorThe Bird GalaxiesMice GalaxiesNGC 4314Arp 147Cigar GalaxyMayall's ObjectNGC 5256Tadpole GalaxyNGC 2936Hoag's ObjectSculptor GalaxyBubble GalaxyNGC 6745NGC 1614Eyes GalaxiesAtoms for Peace GalaxyButterfly GalaxiesSarah's GalaxyCircinus GalaxyM66Centaurus ABode GalaxySunflower GalaxyVirgo ClusterCaelum SuperclusterCentaurus ClusterASASSN-15lh Brightest SupernovaSaraswati SuperclusterClowes Campusano LQGU1.11 LQGBullet ClusterGiant GRB RingHercules–Corona Borealis Great WallSouthern Local SupervoidCorona Borealis SuperclusterKBC VoidPandora's ClusterHorologium SuperclusterHuge-LQGGiant VoidShapley SuperclusterBOSS Great WallHydra ClusterEl Gordo ClusterSculptor WallGN-z11 (most distant known galaxy)Northern Local SupervoidGRB 090423 (most distant known gamma ray burst)Coma WallTonantzintla 618 (most massive known black hole)Leo SuperclusterIcarus (most distant individual star detected)Sloan Great WallULAS_J1342+0928 (most distant known quasar)PolarisHadarDubheAlnairRegulusSpicaRanAlnilamMusicaBellatrixRegorDenebSargasDelta_PavonisAlkaid
Extended universe logarithmic illustration (English annotated).pngEarthMoonSunVenusMercuryHalley's CometMarsPhobosDeimosAsteroid BeltAsteroid BeltAsteroid BeltCeresVestaPallasHygieaJupiterIoCallistoEuropaGanymedeʻOumuamuaSaturnDioneTitanUranusNeptuneTritonPlutoHaumeaMakemakeErisSalaciaSednaGonggongProxima CentauriAlpha CentauriArcturusPleiadesCapellaProcyonLuhman 16Van Maanen's StarAldebaranCanopusCarina NebulaSiriusVegaTau CetiUY ScutiLalande 21185BetelgeuseAntaresRigelPolluxAcruxOmega NebulaRing NebulaLuyten 726-8GacruxEagle NebulaHorsehead NebulaMilky Way GalaxyPerseus ArmLarge Magellanic CloudSmall Magellanic CloudOmega CentauriTerzan 1Andromeda GalaxyTriangulum GalaxyWLM GalaxyNGC 300The Whale GalaxyCaldwell 5Cetus ABlack Eye GalaxyWhirlpool GalaxyAntennae GalaxiesCaldwell 101Pinwheel GalaxyNGC 1300Sombrero GalaxyCartwheel GalaxyM100Arp 194 GalaxyNGC 7319Barnard's StarWolf 359CastorThe Bird GalaxiesMice GalaxiesNGC 4314Arp 147Cigar GalaxyMayall's ObjectNGC 5256Tadpole GalaxyNGC 2936Hoag's ObjectSculptor GalaxyBubble GalaxyNGC 6745NGC 1614Eyes GalaxiesAtoms for Peace GalaxyButterfly GalaxiesSarah's GalaxyCircinus GalaxyM66Centaurus ABode GalaxySunflower GalaxyVirgo ClusterCaelum SuperclusterCentaurus ClusterASASSN-15lh Brightest SupernovaSaraswati SuperclusterClowes Campusano LQGU1.11 LQGBullet ClusterGiant GRB RingHercules–Corona Borealis Great WallSouthern Local SupervoidCorona Borealis SuperclusterKBC VoidPandora's ClusterHorologium SuperclusterHuge-LQGGiant VoidShapley SuperclusterBOSS Great WallHydra ClusterEl Gordo ClusterSculptor WallGN-z11 (most distant known galaxy)Northern Local SupervoidGRB 090423 (most distant known gamma ray burst)Coma WallTonantzintla 618 (most massive known black hole)Leo SuperclusterIcarus (most distant individual star detected)Sloan Great WallULAS_J1342+0928 (most distant known quasar)PolarisHadarDubheAlnairRegulusSpicaRanAlnilamMusicaBellatrixRegorDenebSargasDelta_PavonisAlkaid

Observable universe logarithmic illustration.png

Observable universe logarithmic illustration with legends.png
Logarithmic representation of the universe centered on the Solar System. Celestial bodies on this graphic are clickable Interactive icon.svg and shown with their sizes enlarged.

Knowledge of the location of Earth has been shaped by 400 years of telescopic observations, and has expanded radically since the start of the 20th century. Initially, Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe, which consisted only of those planets visible with the naked eye and an outlying sphere of fixed stars. [1] After the acceptance of the heliocentric model in the 17th century, observations by William Herschel and others showed that the Sun lay within a vast, disc-shaped galaxy of stars. [2] By the 20th century, observations of spiral nebulae revealed that the Milky Way galaxy was one of billions in an expanding universe, [3] [4] grouped into clusters and superclusters. By the end of the 20th century, the overall structure of the visible universe was becoming clearer, with superclusters forming into a vast web of filaments and voids. [5] Superclusters, filaments and voids are the largest coherent structures in the Universe that we can observe. [6] At still larger scales (over 1000 megaparsecs [lower-alpha 1] ) the Universe becomes homogeneous, meaning that all its parts have on average the same density, composition and structure. [7]

Contents

Since there is believed to be no "center" or "edge" of the Universe, there is no particular reference point with which to plot the overall location of the Earth in the universe. [8] Because the observable universe is defined as that region of the Universe visible to terrestrial observers, Earth is, because of the constancy of the speed of light, the center of Earth's observable universe. Reference can be made to the Earth's position with respect to specific structures, which exist at various scales. It is still undetermined whether the Universe is infinite. There have been numerous hypotheses that the known universe may be only one such example within a higher multiverse; however, no direct evidence of any sort of multiverse has been observed, and some have argued that the hypothesis is not falsifiable. [9] [10]

Details

Earth is the third planet from the Sun with an approximate distance of 149.6 million kilometres (93.0 million miles), and is traveling nearly 2.1 million kilometres per hour (1.3 million miles per hour) through outer space. [11]

Table

FeatureDiameterNotesSources
(most suitable unit)(km, with scientific notation)(km, as a power of 10, Logarithmic scale)
Earth 12,756.2 km
(equatorial)		1.28×1044.11Measurement comprises just the solid part of the Earth; there is no agreed upper boundary for Earth's atmosphere.
The geocorona, a layer of UV-luminescent hydrogen atoms, lies at 100,000 km.
The Kármán line, defined as the boundary of space for astronautics, lies at 100 km.		 [12] [13] [14] [15]
Orbit of the Moon 768,210 km [lower-alpha 2] 7.68×1055.89The average diameter of the orbit of the Moon relative to the Earth. [16]
Geospace 6,363,000–12,663,000 km
(110–210 Earth radii)		6.36×106–1.27×1076.80–7.10The space dominated by Earth's magnetic field and its magnetotail, shaped by the solar wind. [17]
Earth's orbit 299.2 million km [lower-alpha 2]
2  AU [lower-alpha 3] 		2.99×1088.48The average diameter of the orbit of the Earth relative to the Sun.
Encompasses the Sun, Mercury and Venus.		 [18]
Inner Solar System ~6.54 AU9.78×1088.99Encompasses the Sun, the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and the asteroid belt.
Cited distance is the 2:1 resonance with Jupiter, which marks the outer limit of the asteroid belt.		 [19] [20] [21]
Outer Solar System 60.14 AU9.00×1099.95Includes the outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune).
Cited distance is the orbital diameter of Neptune.		 [22]
Kuiper belt ~96 AU1.44×101010.16Belt of icy objects surrounding the outer Solar System. Encompasses the dwarf planets Pluto, Haumea and Makemake.
Cited distance is the 2:1 resonance with Neptune, generally regarded as the outer edge of the main Kuiper belt.		 [23]
Heliosphere 160 AU2.39×101010.38Maximum extent of the solar wind and the interplanetary medium. [24] [25]
Scattered disc 195.3 AU2.92×101010.47Region of sparsely scattered icy objects surrounding the Kuiper belt. Encompasses the dwarf planet Eris.
Cited distance is derived by doubling the aphelion of Eris, the farthest known scattered disc object.
As of now, Eris's aphelion marks the farthest known point in the scattered disc.		 [26]
Oort cloud 100,000–200,000 AU
0.613–1.23 pc [lower-alpha 1] 		1.89×1013–3.80×101313.28–13.58Spherical shell of over a trillion (1012) comets. Existence is currently hypothetical, but inferred from the orbits of long-period comets. [27]
Solar System 1.23 pc3.80×101313.58The Sun and its planetary system. Cited diameter is that of the Sun's Hill sphere; the region of its gravitational influence. [28]
Local Interstellar Cloud 9.2 pc2.84×101414.45 Interstellar cloud of gas through which the Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling. [29]
Local Bubble 2.82–250 pc8.70×1013–7.71×101513.94–15.89Cavity in the interstellar medium in which the Sun and a number of other stars are currently travelling.
Caused by a past supernova.		 [30] [31]
Gould Belt 1,000 pc3.09×101616.49Projection effect of the Radcliffe wave and Split linear structures (Gould Belt), [32] between which the Sun is currently travelling. [33]
Orion Arm 3000 pc
(length)		9.26×101616.97The spiral arm of the Milky Way Galaxy through which the Sun is currently travelling.
Orbit of the Solar System 17,200 pc5.31×101717.72The average diameter of the orbit of the Solar System relative to the Galactic Center.
The Sun's orbital radius is roughly 8,600 parsecs, or slightly over halfway to the galactic edge.
One orbital period of the Solar System lasts between 225 and 250 million years.		 [34] [35]
Milky Way Galaxy 30,000 pc9.26×101717.97Our home galaxy, composed of 200 billion to 400 billion stars and filled with the interstellar medium. [36] [37]
Milky Way subgroup 840,500 pc2.59×101919.41The Milky Way and those satellite dwarf galaxies gravitationally bound to it.
Examples include the Sagittarius Dwarf, the Ursa Minor Dwarf and the Canis Major Dwarf.
Cited distance is the orbital diameter of the Leo T Dwarf galaxy, the most distant galaxy in the Milky Way subgroup. Currently 59 satellite galaxies are part of the subgroup.		 [38]
Local Group 3 Mpc [lower-alpha 1] 9.26×101919.97 Group of at least 80 galaxies of which the Milky Way is a part.
Dominated by Andromeda (the largest), the Milky Way and Triangulum; the remainder are dwarf galaxies.		 [39]
Local Sheet 7 Mpc2.16×102020.33Group of galaxies including the Local Group moving at the same relative velocity towards the Virgo Cluster and away from the Local Void. [40] [41]
Virgo Supercluster 30 Mpc9.26×102020.97The supercluster of which the Local Group is a part.
It comprises roughly 100 galaxy groups and clusters, centred on the Virgo Cluster.
The Local Group is located on the outer edge of the Virgo Supercluster.		 [42] [43]
Laniakea Supercluster 160 Mpc4.94×102121.69A group connected with the superclusters of which the Local Group is a part.
Comprises roughly 300 to 500 galaxy groups and clusters, centred on the Great Attractor in the Hydra–Centaurus Supercluster.		 [44] [45] [46] [47]
Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex 330 Mpc1×102221.98 Galaxy filament that includes the Pisces-Cetus Superclusters, Perseus–Pisces Supercluster, Sculptor Supercluster and associated smaller filamentary chains. [48] [49]
Observable Universe 28,500 Mpc8.79×102323.94 At least 2 trillion galaxies in the observable universe, arranged in millions of superclusters, galactic filaments, and voids, creating a foam-like superstructure. [50] [51] [52] [53]
Universe Minimum 28,500 Mpc
(possibly infinite)		Minimum 8.79×1023Minimum 23.94Beyond the observable universe lie the unobservable regions from which no light has yet reached the Earth.
No information is available, as light is the fastest travelling medium of information.
However, uniformitarianism argues that the Universe is likely to contain more galaxies in the same foam-like superstructure.		 [54]
Logarithmic scale universe.png
Logarithmic depiction of Earth's location
Location of Earth in the Universe
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Earth-Moon System
Inner solar system objects top view for wiki.png
Inner Solar System with Near-Earth objects
Oort cloud Sedna orbit.svg
Solar System and Oort cloud
Angular map of fusors around Sol within 9ly (large).png
Nearest stars
Local Interstellar Clouds with motion arrows.jpg
Local Interstellar Cloud and neighbouring interstellar medium
Galaxymap.com, map 100 parsecs (2022).png
Star associations and interstellar medium map of the Local Bubble
Galaxymap.com, map 1000 parsecs (2022).png
Molecular clouds around the Sun inside the Orion-Cygnus Arm
OrionSpur.png
Orion-Cygnus Arm and neighbouring arms
Milky Way Arms ssc2008-10.svg
Orion-Cygnus Arm inside the Milky Way
Milky Way side view.png
The Sun within the structure of the Milky Way
06-Local Group (LofE06240).png
Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way in Local Group
07-Laniakea (LofE07240).png
Virgo SCl in Laniakea SCl
Laniakea.gif
Laniakea SCl in Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex
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Observable Universe of the Universe
Clickable image of the Location of Earth. Place your mouse cursor over an area in the image to see the related area name; click to link to an article about the area. (view * discuss) LocationOfEarth-1600.jpgEarthMoonInner Solar SystemOuter Solar SystemClosest StarsMilky Way GalaxyLocal GroupLaniakea SuperclusterLocal Supercluster ComplexObservable Universe
Interactive icon.svg Clickable image of the Location of Earth . Place your mouse cursor over an area in the image to see the related area name; click to link to an article about the area.
Observable Universe Logarithmic Map (horizontal layout english annotations).png
A logarithmic map of the observable universe. From left to right, spacecraft and celestial bodies are arranged according to their proximity to the Earth.
Observable Universe Logarithmic Map (horizontal layout no annotations).png
A logarithmic map of the observable universe. From left to right, spacecraft and celestial bodies are arranged according to their proximity to the Earth.
Observable Universe Map (with annotations).png
A logarithmic map of the observable universe. From left to right, spacecraft and celestial bodies are arranged according to their proximity to the Earth.
Observable Universe Illustration on rectangle (no annotations).png
A logarithmic map of the observable universe. From left to right, spacecraft and celestial bodies are arranged according to their proximity to the Earth.
Stereoscopic view of the universe (805 x 416) for cross-eyed viewing Stereoscopic view of the universe (805 x 416) for cross-eyed viewing.png
Stereoscopic view of the universe (805 x 416) for cross-eyed viewing

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 A parsec (pc) is the distance at which a star's parallax as viewed from Earth is equal to one second of arc, equal to roughly 206,000 AU or 3.0857×1013 km. One megaparsec (Mpc) is equivalent to one million parsecs.
  2. 1 2 Semi-major and semi-minor axes.
  3. ↑ 1 AU or astronomical unit is the distance between the Earth and the Sun, or 150 million km. Earth's orbital diameter is twice its orbital radius, or 2 AU.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Local Group</span> Group of galaxies that includes the Milky Way

The Local Group is the galaxy group that includes the Milky Way, where Earth is located. It has a total diameter of roughly 3 megaparsecs (10 million light-years; 9×1019 kilometres), and a total mass of the order of 2×1012 solar masses (4×1042 kg). It consists of two collections of galaxies in a "dumbbell" shape; the Milky Way and its satellites form one lobe, and the Andromeda Galaxy and its satellites constitute the other. The two collections are separated by about 800 kiloparsecs (3×10^6 ly; 2×1019 km) and are moving toward one another with a velocity of 123 km/s. The group itself is a part of the larger Virgo Supercluster, which may be a part of the Laniakea Supercluster. The exact number of galaxies in the Local Group is unknown as some are occluded by the Milky Way; however, at least 80 members are known, most of which are dwarf galaxies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">IC 342/Maffei Group</span> Galaxy cluster in the constellation of Cassiopeia

The IC 342/Maffei Group corresponds to one or two galaxy groups close to the Local Group. The member galaxies are mostly concentrated around either IC 342 or Maffei 1, which would be the brightest two galaxies in the group. The group is part of the Virgo Supercluster. However, recent studies have found that the two subgroups are unrelated; while the IC 342 group is the nearest galaxy group to the Milky Way, the Maffei 1 group is several times farther away, and is not gravitationally bound to the IC 342 group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercluster</span> Large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups

A supercluster is a large group of smaller galaxy clusters or galaxy groups; they are among the largest known structures in the universe. The Milky Way is part of the Local Group galaxy group, which in turn is part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is part of the Laniakea Supercluster, which is part of the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex. The large size and low density of superclusters means that they, unlike clusters, expand with the Hubble expansion. The number of superclusters in the observable universe is estimated to be 10 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure</span>

The following is a timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure of the universe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Virgo Supercluster</span> Former supercluster

The Local Supercluster is a formerly defined supercluster containing the Virgo Cluster and Local Group, which itself contains the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies, as well as others. At least 100 galaxy groups and clusters are located within its diameter of 33 megaparsecs. The Virgo SC is one of about 10 million superclusters in the observable universe and is in the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, a galaxy filament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Attractor</span> Region of overdensity of galaxies within the local supercluster

The Great Attractor is a region of gravitational attraction in intergalactic space and the apparent central gravitational point of the Laniakea Supercluster of galaxies that includes the Milky Way galaxy, as well as about 100,000 other galaxies.

This page lists examples of the power in watts produced by various sources of energy. They are grouped by orders of magnitude from small to large.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydra–Centaurus Supercluster</span> Former galaxy supercluster

The Hydra–Centaurus Supercluster, or the Hydra and Centaurus Superclusters, was a previously defined supercluster in two parts, which prior to the identification of Laniakea Supercluster in 2014 is the closest neighbour of the former Virgo Supercluster. Its center is located about 39 Mpc (127 Mly) away, with it extending to a maximum distance of around 69 Mpc (225 Mly).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milky Way</span> Galaxy containing the Solar System

The Milky Way is the galaxy that includes the Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pavo–Indus Supercluster</span> Neighboring supercluster in the constellations Pavo, Indus and Telescopium

The Pavo–Indus Supercluster is a neighboring supercluster located about 60–70 Mpc (196–228 Mly) away in the constellations of Pavo, Indus, and Telescopium. The supercluster contains three main clusters, Abell 3656, Abell 3698, and Abell 3742.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galaxy filament</span> Largest structures in the universe, made of galaxies

In cosmology, galaxy filaments are the largest known structures in the universe, consisting of walls of galactic superclusters. These massive, thread-like formations can commonly reach 50/h to 80/h megaparsecs —with the largest found to date being the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall at around 3 gigaparsecs (9.8 Gly) in length—and form the boundaries between voids. Due to the accelerating expansion of the universe, the individual clusters of gravitationally bound galaxies that make up galaxy filaments are moving away from each other at an accelerated rate; in the far future they will dissolve.

The Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex is a galaxy filament. It includes the Laniakea Supercluster which contains the Virgo Supercluster lobe which in turn contains the Local Group, the galaxy cluster that includes the Milky Way. This filament is adjacent to the Perseus–Pegasus Filament.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Local Sheet</span> Nearby extragalactic region of space

The Local Sheet in astronomy is a nearby extragalactic region of space where the Milky Way, the members of the Local Group and other galaxies share a similar peculiar velocity. This region lies within a radius of about 7 Mpc (23 Mly), 0.46 Mpc (1.5 Mly) thick, and galaxies beyond that distance show markedly different velocities. The Local Group has only a relatively small peculiar velocity of 66 km⋅s−1 with respect to the Local Sheet. Typical velocity dispersion of galaxies is only 40 km⋅s−1 in the radial direction. Nearly all nearby bright galaxies belong to the Local Sheet. The Local Sheet is part of the Local Volume and is in the Virgo Supercluster. The Local Sheet forms a wall of galaxies delineating one boundary of the Local Void.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laniakea Supercluster</span> Galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way Galaxy and many more galaxies

The Laniakea Supercluster or the Local Supercluster is the galaxy supercluster that is home to the Milky Way and approximately 100,000 other nearby galaxies.

The Taurus Void is a vast, near-empty region of space situated between the Perseus–Pisces Supercluster and the Virgo Supercluster. The Taurus void is unique because of its relatively close proximity to Earth, and because it helps to define the edge of latter's home supercluster, the Virgo Supercluster. Despite its close proximity to Earth, the Taurus Void is not well-studied because it is partially obscured by the Milky Way when viewed from Earth. In contrast to its ambiguous boundary in the section of sky obscured by the Milky Way, the Taurus Void has a very well-defined boundary with the Perseus–Pisces supercluster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern Supercluster</span> Closest neighboring galaxy supercluster

The Southern Supercluster is a nearby supercluster located around 19.5 Mpc (63.6 Mly) in the constellations of Cetus, Fornax, Eridanus, Horologium, and Dorado. It was first identified in 1953 by Gérard de Vaucouleurs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hélène Courtois</span> French astrophysicist

Hélène Courtois is a French astrophysicist specialising in cosmography. She is a professor at the University of Lyon 1 and has been a chevalier of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques since 2015.

Daniel Pomarède is a staff scientist at the Institute of Research into the Fundamental Laws of the Universe, CEA Paris-Saclay University. He co-discovered Laniakea, our home supercluster of galaxies, and Ho'oleilana, a spherical shell-like structure 1 billion light-years in diameter found in the distribution of galaxies, possibly the remnant of a Baryon Acoustic Oscillation. Specialized in data visualization and cosmography, a branch of cosmology dedicated to mapping the Universe, he also co-authored the discoveries of the Dipole Repeller and of the Cold Spot Repeller, two large influential cosmic voids, and the discovery of the South Pole Wall, a large-scale structure located in the direction of the south celestial pole beyond the southern frontiers of Laniakea.

The Telescopium−Grus Cloud is a galaxy filament in the constellations of Pavo, Indus, and Telescopium. It was first defined by astronomer Brent Tully in his book The Nearby Galaxies Atlas and its companion book The Nearby Galaxies Catalog.

References

  1. ↑ Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957). The Copernican Revolution . Harvard University Press. pp.  5–20. ISBN   978-0-674-17103-9.
  2. ↑ "1781: William Herschel Reveals the Shape of our Galaxy". Carnegie Institution for Science. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
  3. ↑ "The Spiral Nebulae and the Great Debate". Eberly College of Science . Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  4. ↑ "1929: Edwin Hubble Discovers the Universe is Expanding". Carnegie Institution for Science. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  5. ↑ "1989: Margaret Geller and John Huchra Map the Universe". Carnegie Institution for Science. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  6. ↑ Villanueva, John Carl (2009). "Structure of the Universe". Universe Today . Retrieved 22 April 2015.
  7. ↑ Kirshner, Robert P. (2002). The Extravagant Universe: Exploding Stars, Dark Energy and the Accelerating Cosmos . Princeton University Press. p.  71. ISBN   978-0-691-05862-7.
  8. ↑ Mainzer, Klaus; Eisinger, J. (2002). The Little Book of Time. Springer. p. 55. ISBN   978-0-387-95288-8.
  9. ↑ Moskowitz, Clara (2012). "5 Reasons We May Live in a Multiverse". space.com. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  10. ↑ Kragh, H. (2009). "Contemporary History of Cosmology and the Controversy over the Multiverse". Annals of Science. 66 (4): 529–551. doi:10.1080/00033790903047725. S2CID   144773289.
  11. ↑ Fraknoi, Andrew (2007). "How Fast Are You Moving When You Are Sitting Still?" (PDF). NASA . Retrieved 29 July 2019.
    NOTE: Estimated velocity of the Earth traveling through outer space may be between 1.3–3.1 million kilometres per hour (0.8–1.9 million miles per hour) – see discussion at "Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?"
  12. ↑ "Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011". The Astronomical Almanac. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
  13. ↑ World Geodetic System (WGS-84). Available online from National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency Retrieved 27 April 2015.
  14. ↑ "Exosphere – overview". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
  15. ↑ S. Sanz Fernández de Córdoba (24 June 2004). "The 100 km Boundary for Astronautics". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011.
  16. ↑ NASA Moon Factsheet and NASA Solar System Exploration Moon Factsheet NASA Retrieved on 17 November 2008
  17. ↑ Koskinen, Hannu (2010), Physics of Space Storms: From the Surface of the Sun to the Earth, Environmental Sciences Series, Springer, ISBN   978-3-642-00310-3
  18. ↑ "Earth Fact Sheet". NASA . Retrieved 17 November 2008. and "Earth: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. NASA. Archived from the original on 27 August 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
  19. ↑ Petit, J.-M.; Morbidelli, A.; Chambers, J. (2001). "The Primordial Excitation and Clearing of the Asteroid Belt" (PDF). Icarus . 153 (2): 338–347. Bibcode:2001Icar..153..338P. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 22 March 2007.
  20. ↑ Roig, F.; Nesvorný, D. & Ferraz-Mello, S. (2002). "Asteroids in the 2 : 1 resonance with Jupiter: dynamics and size distribution". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 335 (2): 417–431. Bibcode:2002MNRAS.335..417R. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05635.x .
  21. ↑ Brož, M; Vokrouhlický, D; Roig, F; Nesvorný, D; Bottke, W. F; Morbidelli, A (2005). "Yarkovsky origin of the unstable asteroids in the 2/1 mean motionresonance with Jupiter". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 359 (4): 1437–1455. Bibcode:2005MNRAS.359.1437B. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08995.x .
  22. ↑ NASA Neptune factsheet and NASA Solar System Exploration Neptune Factsheet NASA Retrieved on 17 November 2008
  23. ↑ De Sanctis, M. C; Capria, M. T; Coradini, A (2001). "Thermal Evolution and Differentiation of Edgeworth–Kuiper Belt Objects". The Astronomical Journal . 121 (5): 2792–2799. Bibcode:2001AJ....121.2792D. doi: 10.1086/320385 .
  24. ↑ NASA/JPL (2009). "Cassini's Big Sky: The View from the Center of Our Solar System". Jet Propulsion Laboratory . Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
  25. ↑ Fahr, H. J.; Kausch, T.; Scherer, H. (2000). "A 5-fluid hydrodynamic approach to model the Solar System-interstellar medium interaction" (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics . 357: 268. Bibcode:2000A&A...357..268F. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2009. See Figures 1 and 2.
  26. ↑ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 136199 Eris (2003 UB313)" (2008-10-04 last obs). Retrieved 21 January 2009.
  27. ↑ Morbidelli, Alessandro (2005). "Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoir". arXiv: astro-ph/0512256 .
  28. ↑ Littmann, Mark (2004). Planets Beyond: Discovering the Outer Solar System . Courier Dover Publications. pp.  162–163. ISBN   978-0-486-43602-9.
  29. ↑ Mark Anderson, "Don't stop till you get to the Fluff", New Scientist no. 2585, 6 January 2007, pp. 26–30
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