Orders of magnitude (power)

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This page lists examples of the power in watts produced by various sources of energy. They are grouped by orders of magnitude from small to large.

Contents

Below 1 W

Factor (watts) SI prefix Value (watts)Value (decibel-milliwatts) Item
10−505.4 × 10−50−463 dBmastro: Hawking radiation power of the ultramassive black hole TON 618. [1] [2]
10−27 ronto- (rW)1.64×10−27−238 dBmphys: approximate power of gravitational radiation emitted by a 1000 kg satellite in geosynchronous orbit around the Earth.
10−24 yocto- (yW)1×10−24−210 dBm
10−21 zepto- (zW)1×10−21−180 dBmbiomed: approximate lowest recorded power consumption of a deep-subsurface marine microbe [3]
10−201×10−20−170 dBmtech: approximate power of Galileo space probe's radio signal (when at Jupiter) as received on earth by a 70-meter DSN antenna.
10−18 atto- (aW)1×10−18−150 dBmphys: approximate power scale at which operation of nanoelectromechanical systems are overwhelmed by thermal fluctuations. [4]
10−161×10−16−130 dBmtech: the GPS signal strength measured at the surface of the Earth.[ clarification needed ] [5]
10−162×10−16−127 dBmbiomed: approximate theoretical minimum luminosity detectable by the human eye under perfect conditions
10−15 femto- (fW)2.5×10−15−116 dBmtech: minimum discernible signal at the antenna terminal of a good FM radio receiver
10−141×10−14−110 dBmtech: approximate lower limit of power reception on digital spread-spectrum cell phones
10−12 pico- (pW)1×10−12−90 dBmbiomed: average power consumption of a human cell
10−111.84×10−11−77 dBmphys: power lost in the form of synchrotron radiation by a proton revolving in the Large Hadron Collider at 7000 GeV [6]
2.9×10−11−72 dBmastro: power per square meter received from Proxima Centauri, the closest star known
10−101×10−10−68 dBmastro: estimated total Hawking radiation power of all black holes in the observable universe. [7] [8] [9]
1.5×10−10−68 dBmbiomed: power entering a human eye from a 100-watt lamp 1  km away
10−9 nano- (nW)2–15×10−9−57 dBm to −48 dBmtech: power consumption of 8-bit PIC microcontroller chips when in "sleep" mode
10−6 micro- (μW)1×10−6−30 dBmtech: approximate consumption of a quartz or mechanical wristwatch
3×10−6−25 dBmastro: cosmic microwave background radiation per square meter
10−55×10−5−13 dBmbiomed: sound power incident on a human eardrum at the threshold intensity for pain (500 mW/m2).
10−3 milli- (mW)1.55×10−3−4.7 dBmastro: power per square meter received from the Sun by Sedna at its aphelion
5×10−37 dBmtech: laser in a CD-ROM drive
5–10×10−37 dBm to 10 dBmtech: laser in a DVD player
10−2 centi- (cW)7×10−218 dBmtech: antenna power in a typical consumer wireless router
10−1 deci- (dW)1.2×10−121 dBmastro: total proton decay power of Earth, assuming the half life of protons to take on the value 1035 years. [10] [11]
5×10−127 dBmtech: maximum allowed carrier output power of an FRS radio

1 to 102 W

Factor (watts) SI prefix Value (watts)Item
100W1tech: cellphone camera light [12]
1.508astro: power per square metre received from the Sun at Neptune's aphelion [13]
2tech: maximum allowed carrier power output of a MURS radio
4tech: the power consumption of an incandescent night light
4tech: maximum allowed carrier power output of a 10-meter CB radio
7tech: the power consumption of a typical Light-emitting diode (LED) light bulb
8tech: human-powered equipment using a hand crank. [14]
101 deca- (daW)1.4 × 101tech: the power consumption of a typical household compact fluorescent light bulb
2–4 × 101biomed: approximate power consumption of the human brain [15]
3–4 × 101tech: the power consumption of a typical household fluorescent tube light
6 × 101tech: the power consumption of a typical household incandescent light bulb
102 hecto- (hW)1 × 102biomed: approximate basal metabolic rate of an adult human body [16]
1.2 × 102tech: electric power output of 1 m2 solar panel in full sunlight (approx. 12% efficiency), at sea level
1.3 × 102tech: peak power consumption of a Pentium 4 CPU
2 × 102tech: stationary bicycle average power output [17] [18]
2.76 × 102astro: fusion power output of 1 cubic meter of volume of the Sun's core. [19]
2.9 × 102units: approximately 1000 BTU/hour
3 × 102tech: PC GPU Nvidia GeForce RTX 4080 peak power consumption [20]
4 × 102tech: legal limit of power output of an amateur radio station in the United Kingdom
5 × 102biomed: power output (useful work plus heat) of a person working hard physically
7.457 × 102units: 1 horsepower [21]
7.5 × 102astro: approximately the amount of sunlight falling on a square metre of the Earth's surface at noon on a clear day in March for northern temperate latitudes
9.09 × 102biomed: peak output power of a healthy human (non-athlete) during a 30-second cycle sprint at 30.1 degree Celsius. [22]

103 to 108 W

103 kilo- (kW)1–3 × 103 Wtech: heat output of a domestic electric kettle
1.1 × 103 Wtech: power of a microwave oven
1.366 × 103 Wastro: power per square meter received from the Sun at the Earth's orbit
1.5 × 103 Wtech: legal limit of power output of an amateur radio station in the United States
up to 2 × 103 Wbiomed: approximate short-time power output of sprinting professional cyclists and weightlifters doing snatch lifts
2.4 × 103 Wgeo: average power consumption per person worldwide in 2008 (21,283 kWh/year)
3.3–6.6 × 103 Weco: average photosynthetic power output per square kilometer of ocean [23]
3.6 × 103 Wtech: synchrotron radiation power lost per ring in the Large Hadron Collider at 7000 GeV [6]
1041–5 × 104 Wtech: nominal power of clear channel AM [24]
1.00 × 104 Weco: average power consumption per person in the United States in 2008 (87,216 kWh/year)
1.4 × 104 Wtech: average power consumption of an electric car on EPA's Highway test schedule [25] [26]
1.45 × 104 Wastro: power per square metre received from the Sun at Mercury's orbit at perihelion
1.6–3.2 × 104 Weco: average photosynthetic power output per square kilometer of land [23]
3 × 104 Wtech: power generated by the four motors of GEN H-4 one-man helicopter
4–20 × 104 Wtech: approximate range of peak power output of typical automobiles (50-250 hp)
5–10 × 104 Wtech: highest allowed ERP for an FM band radio station in the United States [27]
1051.67 × 105 Wtech: power consumption of UNIVAC 1 computer
2.5–8 × 105 Wtech: approximate range of power output of 'supercars' (300 to 1000 hp)
4.5 × 105 Wtech: approximate maximum power output of a large 18-wheeler truck engine (600 hp)
106 mega- (MW)1.3 × 106 Wtech: power output of P-51 Mustang fighter aircraft
1.9 × 106 Wastro: power per square meter potentially received by Earth at the peak of the Sun's red giant phase
2.0 × 106 Wtech: peak power output of GE's standard wind turbine
2.4 × 106 Wtech: peak power output of a Princess Coronation class steam locomotive (approx 3.3K EDHP on test) (1937)
2.5 × 106 Wbiomed: peak power output of a blue whale
3 × 106 Wtech: mechanical power output of a diesel locomotive
4.4 × 106 Wtech: total mechanical power output of Titanic's coal-fueled steam engines [28]
7 × 106 Wtech: mechanical power output of a Top Fuel dragster
8 × 106 Wtech: peak power output of the MHI Vestas V164, the world's largest offshore wind turbine
1071 × 107 Wtech: highest ERP allowed for an UHF television station
1.03 × 107 Wgeo: electrical power output of Togo
1.22 × 107 Wtech: approx power available to a Eurostar 20-carriage train
1.5 × 107 Wtech: electrical power consumption of Sunway TaihuLight, the most powerful supercomputer in China
1.6 × 107 Wtech: rate at which a typical gasoline pump transfers chemical energy to a vehicle
2.6 × 107 Wtech: peak power output of the reactor of a Los Angeles-class nuclear submarine
7.5 × 107 Wtech: maximum power output of one GE90 jet engine as installed on the Boeing 777
1081.04 × 108 Wtech: power producing capacity of the Niagara Power Plant, the first electrical power plant in history
1.4 × 108 Wtech: average power consumption of a Boeing 747 passenger aircraft
1.9 × 108 Wtech: peak power output of a Nimitz-class aircraft carrier
5 × 108 Wtech: typical power output of a fossil fuel power station
9 × 108 Wtech: electric power output of a CANDU nuclear reactor
9.59 × 108 Wgeo: average electrical power consumption of Zimbabwe in 1998
9.86 × 108 Wastro: approximate solar power received by the dwarf planet Sedna at its aphelion (937 AU)

The productive capacity of electrical generators operated by utility companies is often measured in MW. Few things can sustain the transfer or consumption of energy on this scale; some of these events or entities include: lightning strikes, naval craft (such as aircraft carriers and submarines), engineering hardware, and some scientific research equipment (such as supercolliders and large lasers).

For reference, about 10,000 100-watt lightbulbs or 5,000 computer systems would be needed to draw 1 MW. Also, 1 MW is approximately 1360 horsepower. Modern high-power diesel-electric locomotives typically have a peak power of 3–5 MW, while a typical modern nuclear power plant produces on the order of 500–2000 MW peak output.

109 to 1014 W

109 giga- (GW)

1.3 × 109

tech: electric power output of Manitoba Hydro Limestone hydroelectric generating station
2.074 × 109tech: peak power generation of Hoover Dam
2.1 × 109tech: peak power generation of Aswan Dam
3.4 × 109tech: estimated power consumption of the Bitcoin network in 2017 [29]
4.116 × 109tech: installed capacity of Kendal Power Station, the world's largest coal-fired power plant.
5.824 × 109tech: installed capacity of the Taichung Power Plant, the largest coal-fired power plant in Taiwan and fourth largest of its kind. It was the single most polluting power plant on Earth in 2009. [30] [31]
7.965 × 109tech: installed capacity of the largest nuclear power plant, the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, before it was permanently shut down in the wake of the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
10101.17 × 1010tech: power produced by the Space Shuttle in liftoff configuration (9.875 GW from the SRBs; 1.9875 GW from the SSMEs.) [32]
1.26 × 1010tech: electrical power generation of the Itaipu Dam
1.27 × 1010geo: average electrical power consumption of Norway in 1998
2.25 × 1010tech: peak electrical power generation of the Three Gorges Dam, the power plant with the world's largest generating capacity of any type. [33]
2.24 × 1010tech: peak power of all German solar panels (at noon on a cloudless day), researched by the Fraunhofer ISE research institute in 2014 [34]
5.027 × 1010tech: peak electrical power consumption of California Independent System Operator users between 1998 and 2018, recorded at 14:44 Pacific Time, July 24, 2006. [35]
5.22 × 1010tech: China total nuclear power capacity as of 2022. [36]
5.5 × 1010tech: peak daily electrical power consumption of Great Britain in November 2008. [37]
7.31 × 1010tech: total installed power capacity of Turkey on December 31, 2015. [38]
9.55 × 1010tech: United States total nuclear power capacity as of 2022. [36]
10111.016 × 1011tech: peak electrical power consumption of France (February 8, 2012 at 7:00 pm)
1.12 × 1011tech: United States total installed solar capacity as of 2022. [39]
1.41 × 1011tech: United States total wind turbine capacity in 2022. [39]
1.66 × 1011tech: average power consumption of the first stage of the Saturn V rocket. [40] [41]
3.66 × 1011tech: China total wind turbine capacity in 2022. [39]
3.92 × 1011tech: China total installed solar capacity as of 2022. [39]
7 × 1011biomed: humankind basal metabolic rate as of 2013 (7 billion people).
8.99 × 1011tech: worldwide wind turbine capacity at end of 2022. [39]
1012 tera- (TW)1.062 × 1012tech: worldwide installed solar capacity at end of 2022. [39]
2 × 1012astro: approximate power generated between the surfaces of Jupiter and its moon Io due to Jupiter's tremendous magnetic field. [42]
3.34 × 1012geo: average total (gas, electricity, etc.) power consumption of the US in 2005 [43]
10132.04 × 1013tech: average rate of power consumption of humanity over 2022. [44]
4.7 × 1013geo: average total heat flow at Earth's surface which originates from its interior. [45] Main sources are roughly equal amounts of radioactive decay and residual heat from Earth's formation. [46]
8.8 × 1013astro: luminosity per square meter of the hottest normal star known, WR 102
5–20 × 1013weather: rate of heat energy release by a hurricane [ citation needed ]
10141.4 × 1014eco: global net primary production (= biomass production) via photosynthesis [47]
2.9 × 1014tech: the power the Z machine reaches in 1 billionth of a second when it is fired[ citation needed ]
3 × 1014weather: Hurricane Katrina's rate of release of latent heat energy into the air. [48]
3 × 1014tech: power reached by the extremely high-power Hercules laser from the University of Michigan.[ citation needed ]
4.6 × 1014geo: estimated rate of net global heating, evaluated as Earth's energy imbalance, from 2005 to 2019. [49] [50] The rate of ocean heat uptake approximately doubled over this period. [51]

1015 to 1026 W

1015 peta- ~2 × 1.00 × 1015 Wtech: Omega EP laser power at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics. There are two separate beams that are combined.
1.4 × 1015 Wgeo: estimated heat flux transported by the Gulf Stream.
5 × 1015 Wgeo: estimated net heat flux transported from Earth's equator and towards each pole. Value is a latitudinal maximum arising near 40° in each hemisphere. [52] [53]
7 × 1015 Wtech: the world's most powerful laser in operation (claimed on February 7, 2019, by Extreme Light Infrastructure – Nuclear Physics (ELI-NP) at Magurele, Romania) [54]
10161.03 × 1016 Wtech: world's most powerful laser pulses (claimed on October 24, 2017, by SULF of Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics). [55]
1–10 × 1016 Wtech: estimated total power output of a Type-I civilization on the Kardashev scale. [56]
10171.73 × 1017 Wastro: total power received by Earth from the Sun [57]
2 × 1017 Wtech: planned peak power of Extreme Light Infrastructure laser [58]
4.6 × 1017 Wastro: total internal heat flux of Jupiter [59]
1018 exa- (EW)In a keynote presentation, NIF & Photon Science Chief Technology Officer Chris Barty described the "Nexawatt" Laser, an exawatt (1,000-petawatt) laser concept based on NIF technologies, on April 13 at the SPIE Optics + Optoelectronics 2015 Conference in Prague. Barty also gave an invited talk on "Laser-Based Nuclear Photonics" at the SPIE meeting. [60]
1021 zetta- (ZW)
10225.31 × 1022 Wastro: approximate luminosity of 2MASS J0523−1403, the least luminous star known. [61]
10234.08 × 1023 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Wolf 359
1024 yotta- (YW)5.3 × 1024 Wtech: estimated peak power of the Tsar Bomba hydrogen bomb detonation [62]
9.8 × 1024 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Sirius B, Sirius's white dwarf companion. [63] [64]
10261 × 1026 Wtech: power generating capacity of a Type-II civilization on the Kardashev scale. [56]
1.87 × 1026 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Tau Ceti, the nearest solitary G-type star.
3.828 × 1026 Wastro: luminosity of the Sun, [65] our home star
7.67 × 1026 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Alpha Centauri, the closest (triple) star system. [66]
1027 ronna- (RW)9.77 × 1027 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Sirius, the visibly brightest star as viewed from Earth. [67]
10286.51 × 1028 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Arcturus, a solar-mass red giant [68]

Over 1027 W

1030 quetta- (QW)1.99 × 1030 Wastro: peak luminosity of the Sun in its thermally-pulsing, late AGB phase (≈5200x present) [69]
4.1 × 1030 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Canopus [70]
10312.53 × 1031 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Beta Centauri triple star system [71]
3.3 × 1031 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Betelgeuse, a highly-evolved red supergiant
10321.23 × 1032 Wastro: approximate luminosity of Deneb
10331.26 × 1033 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Pistol Star, an LBV which emits in 10 seconds the Sun's annual energy output
1.79 × 1033 Wastro: approximate luminosity of R136a1, [72] a massive Wolf-Rayet star and the most luminous single star known
2.1 × 1033 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Eta Carinae system, [73] a highly elliptical binary of two supergiant blue stars orbiting each other
10344 × 1034 Wtech: approximate power used by a type III civilization in the Kardashev scale. [56]
10365.7 × 1036 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Milky Way galaxy [74] [75]
10372 × 1037 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Local Group, the volume enclosed by our gravitational cosmic horizon [76] [77]
4 × 1037 Wastro: approximate internal luminosity of the Sun for a few seconds as it undergoes a helium flash. [78] [79]
10382.2 × 1038 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the extremely luminous supernova ASASSN-15lh [80] [81]
10391 × 1039 Wastro: average luminosity of a quasar
1.57 × 1039 Wastro: approximate luminosity of 3C273, the brightest quasar seen from Earth [82]
10405 × 1040 Wastro: approximate peak luminosity of the energetic fast blue optical transient CSS161010 [83]
10411 × 1041 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the most luminous quasars in our universe, e.g., APM 08279+5255 and HS 1946+7658. [84]
10421.7 × 1042 Wastro: approximate luminosity of the Laniakea Supercluster [85] [86]
3 × 1042 Wastro: approximate luminosity of an average gamma-ray burst [87]
10432.2 × 1043 Wastro: average stellar luminosity in one cubic gigalight-year of space
1045
10461 × 1046 Wastro: record for maximum beaming-corrected intrinsic luminosity ever achieved by a gamma-ray burst [88]
10477.519 × 1047 Wphys: Hawking radiation luminosity of a Planck mass black hole [89]
10489.5 × 1048 Wastro: luminosity of the entire Observable universe [90] ≈ 24.6 billion trillion solar luminosity.
10493.6 × 1049 Wastro: peak gravitational wave radiative power of GW150914, the merger event of two distant stellar-mass black holes. It is attributed to the first observation of gravitational waves. [91]
10523.63 × 1052 Wphys: the unit of power as expressed under the Planck units, [note 1] at which the definition of power under modern conceptualizations of physics breaks down. Equivalent to one Planck mass-energy per Planck time.

See also

Notes

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galaxy formation and evolution</span>

The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies. Galaxy formation is hypothesized to occur from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang. The simplest model in general agreement with observed phenomena is the Lambda-CDM model—that is, clustering and merging allows galaxies to accumulate mass, determining both their shape and structure. Hydrodynamics simulation, which simulates both baryons and dark matter, is widely used to study galaxy formation and evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supernova</span> Explosion of a star at its end of life

A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. A supernova occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star, or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed to form a diffuse nebula. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown dwarf</span> Type of substellar object larger than a planet

Brown dwarfs are substellar objects that have more mass than the biggest gas giant planets, but less than the least massive main-sequence stars. Their mass is approximately 13 to 80 times that of Jupiter (MJ)—not big enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (1H) into helium in their cores, but massive enough to emit some light and heat from the fusion of deuterium (2H). The most massive ones can fuse lithium (7Li).

The Eddington luminosity, also referred to as the Eddington limit, is the maximum luminosity a body can achieve when there is balance between the force of radiation acting outward and the gravitational force acting inward. The state of balance is called hydrostatic equilibrium. When a star exceeds the Eddington luminosity, it will initiate a very intense radiation-driven stellar wind from its outer layers. Since most massive stars have luminosities far below the Eddington luminosity, their winds are driven mostly by the less intense line absorption. The Eddington limit is invoked to explain the observed luminosities of accreting black holes such as quasars.

Solar radius is a unit of distance used to express the size of stars in astronomy relative to the Sun. The solar radius is usually defined as the radius to the layer in the Sun's photosphere where the optical depth equals 2/3:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rogue planet</span> Planets not gravitationally bound to a star

A rogue planet, also termed a free-floating planet (FFP) or an isolated planetary-mass object (iPMO), is an interstellar object of planetary mass which is not gravitationally bound to any star or brown dwarf.

Photoevaporation is the process where energetic radiation ionises gas and causes it to disperse away from the ionising source. The term is typically used in an astrophysical context where ultraviolet radiation from hot stars acts on clouds of material such as molecular clouds, protoplanetary disks, or planetary atmospheres.

This list compares various energies in joules (J), organized by order of magnitude.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metallicity</span> Relative abundance of heavy elements in a star or other astronomical object

In astronomy, metallicity is the abundance of elements present in an object that are heavier than hydrogen and helium. Most of the normal currently detectable matter in the universe is either hydrogen or helium, and astronomers use the word "metals" as convenient shorthand for "all elements except hydrogen and helium". This word-use is distinct from the conventional chemical or physical definition of a metal as an electrically conducting solid. Stars and nebulae with relatively high abundances of heavier elements are called "metal-rich" when discussing metallicity, even though many of those elements are called nonmetals in chemistry.

In astronomy, the intracluster medium (ICM) is the superheated plasma that permeates a galaxy cluster. The gas consists mainly of ionized hydrogen and helium and accounts for most of the baryonic material in galaxy clusters. The ICM is heated to temperatures on the order of 10 to 100 megakelvins, emitting strong X-ray radiation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">TVLM 513-46546</span> Brown dwarf star in the constellation Boötes

TVLM 513-46546 is an M9 ultracool dwarf at the red dwarf/brown dwarf mass boundary in the constellation Boötes. It exhibits flare star activity, which is most pronounced at radio wavelengths. The star has a mass approximately 80 times the mass of Jupiter. The radio emission is broadband and highly circularly polarized, similar to planetary auroral radio emissions. The radio emission is periodic, with bursts emitted every 7054 s, with nearly one hundredth of a second precision. Subtle variations in the radio pulses could suggest that the ultracool dwarf rotates faster at the equator than the poles in a manner similar to the Sun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CoRoT-7b</span> Hot Super-Earth orbiting CoRoT-7

CoRoT-7b is an exoplanet orbiting the star CoRoT-7 in the constellation of Monoceros, 489 light-years from Earth. It was first detected photometrically by the French-led CoRoT mission and reported in February 2009. Until the announcement of Kepler-10b in January 2011, it was the smallest exoplanet to have its diameter measured, at 1.58 times that of the Earth and the first potential extrasolar terrestrial planet to be found. The exoplanet has a very short orbital period, revolving around its host star in about 20 hours.

Stacy McGaugh is an American astronomer and professor in the Department of Astronomy at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. His fields of specialty include low surface brightness galaxies, galaxy formation and evolution, tests of dark matter and alternative hypotheses, and measurements of cosmological parameters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">RSGC1</span> Massive open cluster with many red supergiants in the constellation Scutum

RSGC1 is a young massive open cluster in the Milky Way galaxy. It was discovered in 2006 in the data generated by several infrared surveys, named for the unprecedented number of red supergiant members. The cluster is located in the constellation Scutum at the distance of about 6.6 kpc from the Sun. It is likely situated at the intersection of the northern end of the Long Bar of the Milky Way and the inner portion of the Scutum–Centaurus Arm—one of its two major spiral arms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tidal disruption event</span> Pulling apart of a star by tidal forces when it gets too close to a supermassive black hole

A tidal disruption event (TDE) is a transient astronomical source produced when a star passes so close to a supermassive black hole (SMBH) that it is pulled apart by the black hole's tidal force. The star undergoes spaghettification, producing a tidal stream of material that loops around the black hole. Some portion of the stellar material is captured into orbit, forming an accretion disk around the black hole, which emits electromagnetic radiation. In a small fraction of TDEs, a relativistic jet is also produced. As the material in the disk is gradually consumed by the black hole, the TDE fades over several months or years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AK Scorpii</span> Binary star in the constellation Scorpius

AK Scorpii is a Herbig Ae/Be star and spectroscopic binary star about 459 light-years distant in the constellation Scorpius. The star belongs to the nearby Upper Centaurus–Lupus star-forming region and the star is actively accreting material. The binary is surrounded by a circumbinary disk that was imaged with VLT/SPHERE in scattered light and with ALMA.

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  79. Peak helium flash luminosity ≈ 100 billion times normal energy production.
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  82. Calculated as: Solar luminosity × 10^(0.4 × (Sun absolute magnitude - 3C 273 absolute magnitude)) = 3.828e+26 × 10^(0.4 × (4.83 - (- 26.73))) = 3.828e+26 × 4.1e+12 = 1.57e+39 W.
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  86. Calculated. Estimated assuming Laniakea to be a sphere 160 Mpc in diameter, according to p.4 of cited paper: Observable universe luminosity × (Laniakea Supercluster diameter / Observable universe diameter)^3 = 9.466e+48 W × (160 Mpc / 28.5 Gpc)^3 = 1.675e+42 ≈ 1.7e+42 W.
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  89. Calculated: https://www.wolframalpha.com/input?i=hawking+radiation+calculate&assumption=%7B%22FS%22%7D+-%3E+%7B%7B%22BlackHoleHawkingRadiationPower%22%2C+%22P%22%7D%2C+%7B%22BlackHoleHawkingRadiationPower%22%2C+%22M%22%7D%7D&assumption=%7B%22F%22%2C+%22BlackHoleHawkingRadiationPower%22%2C+%22M%22%7D+-%3E%22planck+mass%22
  90. Calculated. Assuming isotropicity in composition and identical age since Big Bang within cosmological horizon, expressed as: Ordinary [baryonic] mass of observable universe / Ordinary mass of Milky Way × Luminosity of Milky Way. L_total = 1.5e+53 kg / 4.6e+10 M_sol * 1.5e+10 L_sol = 9.466e+48 W ≈ 9.5e+48 W.
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