Extremes on Earth

Last updated

This article lists extreme locations on Earth that hold geographical records or are otherwise known for their geophysical or meteorological superlatives. All of these locations are Earth-wide extremes; extremes of individual continents or countries are not listed.

Contents

Latitude and longitude

Northernmost

Southernmost

Easternmost and westernmost

Longest grid lines

Along constant latitude

Along constant longitude

Along any geodesic

These are the longest straight lines [c] that can be drawn between any two points on the surface of the Earth and remain exclusively over land or water; the points need not lie on the same line of latitude or longitude.

Along any diameter (straight line passing through the centre of the Earth)

As distinct from geodesic lines, which appear straight only when projected onto the spheroidal surface of the Earth (i.e. arcs of great circles), straight lines passing through the Earth's centre can be constructed through the interior of the Earth between almost any two points on the surface of the Earth (some extreme topographical situations such as overhanging cliffs being the rare exceptions[ citation needed ]). A line projected from the summit of Cayambe in Ecuador (see highest points) through the axial centre of the Earth to its antipode on the island of Sumatra results in the longest diameter that can be produced anywhere through the Earth. As the variable circumference of the Earth approaches 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi), such a maximum "diameter" or "antipodal" line would be on the order of 13,000 kilometres (8,000 mi) long.[ citation needed ]

Elevation

Highest points

While Everest is Earth's highest elevation (green) and Mauna Kea is tallest from its base (orange), Cayambe is farthest from Earth's axis (pink) and Chimborazo is farthest from Earth's centre (blue). Not to scale Comparison of Earth farthest points.svg
While Everest is Earth's highest elevation (green) and Mauna Kea is tallest from its base (orange), Cayambe is farthest from Earth's axis (pink) and Chimborazo is farthest from Earth's centre (blue). Not to scale
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is the farthest point from Earth's centre. Volcan Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg
The summit of Chimborazo in Ecuador is the farthest point from Earth's centre.

Highest geographical features

Highest points attainable by transportation

  • The highest point accessible
    • by land vehicle is an elevation of 6,688 m (21,942 ft) on Ojos del Salado in Chile, which was reached by the Chilean duo of Gonzalo and Eduardo Canales Moya on 21 April 2007 with a modified Suzuki Samurai, setting the high-altitude record for a four-wheeled vehicle.
    • by road (dead end) is on a mining road to the summit of Aucanquilcha in Chile, which reaches an elevation of 6,176 m (20,262 ft). It was once usable by 20-tonne mining trucks. [20] The road is no longer usable. 21°12′50″S68°28′30″W / 21.214°S 68.475°W / -21.214; -68.475
    • by road (mountain pass) is disputed; there are a number of competing claims for this title due to the definition of "motorable pass" (i.e. a surfaced road or one simply passable by a vehicle):
      • The highest asphalted road is the single-lane road to Umling La, located 17 km (11 mi) west of Demchok in Ladakh, India, which reaches 5,800 m (19,029 ft) ("19,300 feet" according to a Border Roads Organisation sign there that recognizes it as the "World's Highest Motorable Pass"). [21] [22] Before the asphalting of the road over Umling La, the highest asphalted road was Tibet's Semo La pass at 5,565 m (18,258 ft). It is used by trucks and buses regularly. [23] The Ticlio pass, on the Central Road of Peru, is the highest surfaced road in the Americas, at an elevation of 4,818 m (15,807 ft).
      • The highest unsurfaced road has several different claimants. All are unsurfaced or gravel roads including Mana Pass, between India and Tibet, which is crossed by a gravel road reaching 5,610 m (18,406 ft). The heavily trafficked Khardung La in Ladakh lies at 5,359 m (17,582 ft). A possibly motorable gravel road crosses Marsimik La in Ladakh at 5,582 m (18,314 ft).
    • by train is Tanggula Pass, located on the Qinghai–Tibet (Qingzang) Railway in the Tanggula Mountains of Qinghai/Tibet, China, at 5,072 m (16,640 ft). The Tanggula railway station is the world's highest railway station at 5,068 m (16,627 ft). Before the Qingzang Railway was built, the highest railway ran between Lima and Huancayo in Peru, reaching 4,829 m (15,843 ft) at Ticlio. [24]
    • by oceangoing vessel is a segment of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal between the Hilpoltstein and Bachhausen locks in Bavaria, Germany. The locks artificially raise the surface level of the water in the canal to 406 m (1,332 ft) above mean sea level, higher than any other lock system in the world, making it the highest point currently accessible by oceangoing commercial watercraft.
La Rinconada, Peru La Rinconada Peru.jpg
La Rinconada, Peru
  • The highest commercial airport is Daocheng Yading Airport, Sichuan, China, at 4,411 m (14,472 ft). [25] The proposed Nagqu Dagring Airport in Tibet, if built, will be 25 m (82 ft) higher at 4,436 m (14,554 ft).
  • The highest helipad is Sonam, Siachen Glacier, India, at a height of 6,400 m (20,997 ft) above sea level. [26]
  • The highest permanent human settlement is La Rinconada, Peru, 5,100 m (16,732 ft), in the Peruvian Andes.
  • The farthest road from the Earth's centre is the Road to Carrel Hut in the Ecuadorian Andes, at an elevation of 4,850 m (15,912 ft) above sea level and a distance of 6,382.9 km (3,966 mi) from the centre of the Earth. [27]

Lowest points

Lowest natural points

  • The lowest point on land not covered by liquid water is the canyon under Denman Glacier in Antarctica, with the bedrock being 3,500 m (11,500 ft) below sea level. [32] [33]
The shore of the Dead Sea in Israel Dead Sea-14.jpg
The shore of the Dead Sea in Israel
  • The lowest point on dry land is the shore of the Dead Sea, shared by Israel, Palestine and Jordan, 432.65 m (1,419 ft) below sea level. As the Dead Sea waters are receding, the water surface level drops more than 1 metre (3.3 ft) per year. [34]
  • The point on the atmospheric surface closest to the Earth's centre (interpreted as a natural surface of the land or sea that is accessible by a person) is the surface of the Arctic Ocean at the Geographic North Pole (6,356.77 km or 3,950 mi).
    • The point on the surface of Earth's crust closest to the Earth's centre (interpreted as a land surface or sea floor) is the bottom of Litke Deep, in the Arctic Ocean, at 6,351.7043 km (3,947 mi) from Earth's centre; the deep's depth relative to sea level is 5,449 m (17,877 ft). Because Earth is an oblate spheroid rather than a perfect sphere, it is wider at the equator and narrower toward each pole. Therefore, the bottom of Litke Deep, which is near the North Pole, is closer to Earth's centre than the bottom of Challenger Deep is; the latter is 14.7268 km (48,316.3 ft) further, at 6,366.4311 km (3,955.9 mi) from Earth's centre. [35] Molloy Deep, also in Arctic Ocean (at 6,357.5178 km or 3,950 mi) from Earth's centre contends closely with Litke Deep, the difference from Earth's centre being just 389 m (1,276 ft).
    • The point on the ocean surface farthest below sea level is located in the Indian Ocean, about 1,200 km (750 mi) southwest of India, the Indian Ocean Geoid Low, about 106 m (348 ft) below the global mean sea level. [36]

Lowest artificial points

Lowest points attainable by transportation

Table of extreme elevations and air temperatures by continent

Continent Elevation (height above/below sea level) A Air temperature (recorded) [39] B
HighestLowestHighestLowest
Africa 5,893 m (19,334 feet)
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania [40]
Kilimanjaro01.jpg
−155 m (−509 feet)
Lake Assal, Djibouti [41] 		55 °C (131 °F) (disputed [42] )
Kebili, French Tunisia
7 July 1931 C 		−23.9 °C (−11.0 °F)
Ifrane, French Morocco
11 February 1935
Antarctica 4,892 m (16,050 feet)
Vinson Massif [43]
Vinson Massif from space.jpg
−50 m (−164 feet) [44]
Deep Lake, Vestfold Hills
(compare the deepest ice section below)		20.75 °C (69.35 °F)
Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station
9 February 2020		−89.2 °C (−128.6 °F)
Vostok Station
21 July 1983
Asia 8,848.86 m (29,032 feet)
Mount Everest, Tibet–Nepal Border [45]
Everest, Himalayas.jpg
−424 m (−1,391 feet)
Dead Sea, Israel–Jordan–Palestine [46] 		54 °C (129 °F)
Tirat Zvi, Israel (then in the British Mandate of Palestine)
21 June 1942		−67.7 °C (−89.9 °F) Measured
Oymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union
6 February 1933 [47] [48]
54 °C (129 °F)
Ahvaz Airport, Iran
29 June 2017 [49] 		−71.2 °C (−96.2 °F) Extrapolated
Oymyakon, Siberia, Soviet Union
26 January 1926 [50]
Europe 5,642 m (18,510 feet)
Mount Elbrus, Russian Federation [51]
Mount Elbrus May 2008.jpg
−28 m (−92 feet)
Caspian Sea shore, Russian Federation [52] 		48.8 °C

(119.8 °F) Floridia, Italy
11 August 2021

−58.1 °C (−72.6 °F)
Ust-Shchuger, Soviet Union
31 December 1978
North America 6,190.5 m (20,310 feet)
Denali (federally designated as Mount McKinley), Alaska, United States [53]
Denali Mt McKinley.jpg
−85 m (−279 feet)
Badwater Basin, California, United States [54] 		56.7 °C (134.1 °F)
Furnace Creek (then named Greenland Ranch), Death Valley, California, United States
10 July 1913 C ( disputed while still official, but up to 54.4 °C (129.9 °F) [42] has also been recorded there in 2020 and 2021, not yet verified by WMO; and 54.0 °C (129.2 °F) which is verified.)		-69.6 °C (-93.3 °F)

Summit Camp, Greenland
22 December 1991

Oceania 4,884 m (16,024 feet)
Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid), Indonesia
(compare Mount Wilhelm, Aoraki / Mount Cook and Mount Kosciuszko) [55]
Puncak Jaya icecap 1972.jpg
−15 m (−49 feet)
Lake Eyre, South Australia, Australia [56] 		50.7 °C (123.3 °F)
Oodnadatta, South Australia, Australia
2 January 1960 G

50.7 °C (123.3 °F)
Onslow, Western Australia, Australia

13 January 2022 [57]

−25.6 °C (−14.1 °F)
Ranfurly, Otago, New Zealand
17 July 1903
South America 6,962 m (22,841 feet)
Aconcagua, Mendoza, Argentina [58]
Aconcagua heli 3.jpg
−105 m (−344 feet)
Laguna del Carbón, Argentina [59] 		48.9 °C (120.0 °F)
Rivadavia, Salta Province, Argentina
11 December 1905		−32.8 °C (−27.0 °F)
Sarmiento, Chubut Province, Argentina
1 June 1907
A. ^ Height above sea level is the usual choice of definition for elevation. The point farthest away from the centre of the Earth, however, is Chimborazo in Ecuador (6,267 m (20,561 feet)). This is due to the Earth's oblate spheroid shape, with points near the Equator being farther out from the centre than those at the poles.
B. ^ All temperatures from the World Meteorological Organization unless noted.
C. ^ The former record of 57.7 °C (135.9 °F) recorded at Al 'Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922 was ruled no longer valid by the WMO due to mistakes made in the recording process. [60] The 1913 reading is, however, itself controversial, and a measurement of 54.0 °C (129.2 °F) at Furnace Creek on 30 June 2013 is undisputed, especially since the same or almost the same temperature has been recorded several times in the 21st century in the same and other places.
E. ^ Temperatures greater than 50 °C (122 °F) in Spain and Portugal were recorded in 1881, but the standard with which they were measured and the accuracy of the thermometers used are unknown; therefore, they are not considered official. Unconfirmed reports also indicate that a set of Spanish stations may have hit 48.0 °C (118.4 °F) during the 2003 heat wave. [61]
F. ^ Greenland is considered by the World Meteorological Organization to be part of WMO region 6 (Europe). [62] [63]
G. ^ A temperature of 53.1 °C (127.6 °F) was recorded in Cloncurry, Queensland on 16 January 1889 under non-standard exposure conditions and is therefore not considered official. [64] [65]

Humans and biogeography

On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high). Mollweide Cycle.gif
On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high).
For representational purposes only: The point on earth closest to everyone in the world on average was calculated to be in Central Asia, with a mean distance of 5,000 kilometers (3,000 mi). Its antipodal point is correspondingly the farthest point from everyone on earth, and is located in the South Pacific near Easter Island, with a mean distance of 15,000 kilometers (9,300 mi). The data used by this figure is lumped at the country level, and is therefore precise only to country-scale distances, larger nations heavily skewed. Far more granular data -- kilometer level, is now available -- compares with this old "textbook" example. WorldCenterOfPopulation.png
For representational purposes only: The point on earth closest to everyone in the world on average was calculated to be in Central Asia, with a mean distance of 5,000 kilometers (3,000 mi). Its antipodal point is correspondingly the farthest point from everyone on earth, and is located in the South Pacific near Easter Island, with a mean distance of 15,000 kilometers (9,300 mi). The data used by this figure is lumped at the country level, and is therefore precise only to country-scale distances, larger nations heavily skewed. Far more granular data -- kilometer level, is now available -- compares with this old "textbook" example.

In contrast to places with the highest density of life, like terrestrial [66] tropical regions, and beside local extreme conditions, which might only be overcome by extremophiles, there are areas of extreme low amounts of life.

Next to terrestrial lifeless areas like the Antarctic desert's McMurdo Dry Valleys and its Don Juan Pond, the most lifeless area in the ocean studied (other than the more general dead zones) is the South Pacific Gyre, [67] corresponding to the oceanic pole of inaccessibility.

The oceanic pole of inaccessibility is also the antipodal area of the human center of population which lies today around southern Central Asia. Similarly the world's economic center of gravity has been drifting since antiquity from Central Asia to Northern Europe and contemporarily back to Central Asia. [68] The related centre of gravity of the worlds carbon emission has shifted from Britain during the Industrial Revolution to the Atlantic, back again and contemporarily into Central Asia. [69]

Remoteness

Poles of inaccessibility

Each continent has its own continental pole of inaccessibility, defined as the place on the continent that is farthest from any ocean. Similarly, each ocean has its own oceanic pole of inaccessibility, defined as the place in the ocean that is farthest from any land.

Map of distance to the nearest coastline (including oceanic islands, but not lakes) with red spots marking the poles of inaccessibility of main landmasses, Great Britain, and the Iberian Peninsula, and a blue dot marking the oceanic pole of inaccessibility. Thin isolines are 250 km (160 mi) apart; thick lines 1,000 km (620 mi). Mollweide projection. Distancia a la costa.png
Map of distance to the nearest coastline (including oceanic islands, but not lakes) with red spots marking the poles of inaccessibility of main landmasses, Great Britain, and the Iberian Peninsula, and a blue dot marking the oceanic pole of inaccessibility. Thin isolines are 250 km (160 mi) apart; thick lines 1,000 km (620 mi). Mollweide projection.

Continental

If adopted, this would place the final EPIA roughly 130 km (80 mi) closer to the ocean than the point that is currently agreed upon. [71] Coincidentally, EPIA1, or EPIA2, and the most remote of the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility (specifically, the point in the South Pacific Ocean that is farthest from land) are similarly remote; EPIA1 is less than 200 km (120 mi) closer to the ocean than the Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility is to land.

Oceanic

Other places considered the most remote

Bouvet Island Bouvet Island ISS017-E-16161 no text.JPG
Bouvet Island

Centre

Since the Earth is a spheroid, its centre (the core) is thousands of kilometres beneath its crust. Still, there have been attempts to define various "centrepoints" on the Earth's surface.

Geophysical extremes

Tallest mountain

Greatest vertical drop

Greatest purely vertical drop1,200 m (4,100 ft)
Mount Thor, Auyuittuq National Park, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada (summit elevation 1,675 m (5,495 ft)) [79] [80]
Mount Thor Peak 1997-08-07.jpg
Greatest nearly vertical drop1,340 m (4,396 ft)
Trango Towers, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan (summit elevation 6,286 m (20,623 ft))
GreatTrango.jpg
Greatest mountain face4,600 m (15,092 ft)
Nanga Parbat, Rupal Face, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
Nanga Parbat Rupal Base camp, Gilgit Baltistan.JPG
Greatest ocean cliff Kermadec Trench, with cliffs around 8,000 m (26,000 ft) tall
Kermadec Arc.jpg

Longest

Subterranean

Deepest mine below ground level4,000 m (13,000 ft)
Mponeng Gold Mine, Gauteng Province, South Africa
Deepest mine below sea level2,733 m (8,967 ft) below sea level
Kidd Mine, Ontario, Canada
Deepest open-pit mine below ground level1,200 m (3,900 ft)
Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah, United States
Deepest open-pit mine below sea level293 m (961 ft) below sea level
Tagebau Hambach, Germany
Deepest cave (measured from the entrance)2,204 m (7,231 ft)
Veryovkina, Arabika Massif, Abkhazia, Georgia [82]
Deepest pitch (single vertical drop)1,026 m (3,366 ft)
Tian Xing Cave, China [83]
Deepest borehole 12,261 m (40,226 ft)
Kola Superdeep Borehole, Russia [84]
Deepest borehole by depth below sea level11,944 m (39,186 ft) (10,685 m well at 1,259 m deep seabed)
The Tiber well, Gulf of Mexico, United States [85]

Greatest oceanic depths

Atlantic Ocean 8,376 m (27,480 ft) [86]
Milwaukee Deep (within the Brownson Deep), Puerto Rico Trench
Arctic Ocean 5,550 m (18,209 ft) [87]
Molloy Deep, Fram Strait
Indian Ocean 7,192 m (23,596 ft) [88]
Sunda Trench
Mediterranean Sea 5,267 m (17,280 ft)
Calypso Deep, Hellenic Trench
Pacific Ocean 10,928 m (35,853 ft) [89]
Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench [90]
Southern Ocean 7,433.6 m (24,388 ft) [91]
South Sandwich Trench (southernmost portion, at 60°28.46′S025°32.32′W / 60.47433°S 25.53867°W / -60.47433; -25.53867 )

Deepest ice

Ice sheets on land, but having the base below sea level. Places under ice are not considered to be on land.

Denman Subglacial Trench −3,500 m (−11,500 ft) Antarctica
Trough beneath Jakobshavn Isbræ −1,512 m (−4,961 ft) [92] Greenland, Denmark

Meteorological extremes

Coldest and hottest inhabited places on Earth

Hottest inhabited place Dallol, Ethiopia (Amharic: ዳሎል), whose annual mean temperature was recorded from 1960 to 1966 as 34.4 °C (93.9 °F). [93] The average daily maximum temperature during the same period was 41.1 °C (106.0 °F). [94]
Coldest inhabited place Oymyakon (Russian: Оймяко́н), a rural locality (selo) in Oymyakonsky District of the Sakha Republic, the Russian Federation, has the coldest monthly mean, with −45.7 °C (−50.3 °F) the average temperature in January, the coldest month. Eureka, Nunavut, Canada has the lowest annual mean temperature at −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F). [95]
The South Pole and some other places in Antarctica are colder and are populated year-round, but almost everyone stays less than a year and could be considered visitors, not inhabitants.

Ground temperatures

Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 °C. [96] A ground temperature of 84 °C (183.2 °F) has been recorded in Port Sudan, Sudan. [97] A ground temperature of 93.9 °C (201 °F) was recorded in Furnace Creek, Death Valley, California, United States on 15 July 1972; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded. [98] The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 °C for dry, darkish soils of low thermal conductivity. [99]

Satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009, taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite, found a maximum temperature of 70.7 °C (159.3 °F), which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert, Iran. The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2009). These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature. [96]

Satellite measurements of the surface temperature of Antarctica, taken between 1982 and 2013, found a coldest temperature of −93.2 °C (−136 °F) on 10 August 2010, at 81°48′S59°18′E / 81.8°S 59.3°E / -81.8; 59.3 . Although this is not comparable to an air temperature, it is believed that the air temperature at this location would have been lower than the official record lowest air temperature of −89.2 °C. [100] [101]

Extreme points by region

Afro-Eurasia

The Americas

Oceania

Antarctica

Arctic

See also

Latitude and longitude
Elevation
Geophysical features
Meteorology and climate
Beyond Earth

Notes

  1. ↑ A 1995 realignment of the International Date Line Archived 28 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine moved all of Kiribati to the Asian side of the Date Line, causing Caroline Island to be the easternmost point. If the previous Date Line were followed, the easternmost point would be Tafahi Niuatoputapu, in the Tonga Islands.
  2. ↑ By comparison, the meridian that passes through the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt (31°08'3.69"E) is 855 km (531 mi) shorter.
  3. ↑ A geodesic is defined as the shortest route between any two points on the surface of the Earth, as measured along the surface of the Earth (rather than through the Earth's interior); they are "straight lines" only in the sense that they are plotted on an idealized two-dimensional surface of the three-dimensional Earth, neglecting changes in surface elevation. On an idealized spherical model of the Earth, geodesics are equivalent to great-circle distances measured along the arcs of great circles.
  4. ↑ The "longest continuous straight-line distance in any direction at sea" from Karachi to Kamchatka was originally added to Wikipedia by user Muh1974 on 21 January 2010 and then confirmed by Chabukswar and Mukherjee in 2018. [7] The source of this discovery before 2010 is unknown as of August 2022.
  5. ↑ The elevation given here was established by a GPS survey in February 2016. The survey was carried out by a team from the French Research Institute for Development, working in cooperation with the Ecuadorian Military Geographic Institute. [13]

References

  1. ↑ Gould Coast US Geographic Survey.
  2. ↑ "Bay of Whales - former bay, Antarctica". Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Encyclopædia Britannica.
  3. ↑ Whitehouse, D (25 May 2005). "Russia to resume Vostok drilling". BBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
  4. ↑ (Map from gcmap)
  5. ↑ (Geoscience Australia)
  6. ↑ (Map from gcmap)
  7. 1 2 Chabukswar, Rohan; Mukherjee, Kushal (9 April 2018). "Longest Straight Line Paths on Water or Land on the Earth". arXiv: 1804.07389 [math.HO].
  8. ↑ David Shultz (30 April 2018). "This ocean path will take you on the longest straight-line journey on Earth". Science Magazine.
  9. ↑ (Map from gcmap)
  10. ↑ (Map from gcmap)
  11. ↑ "Mount Everest is more than two feet taller, China and Nepal announce". nationalgeographib.com. 9 February 2021. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020.
  12. ↑ "Highest Mountain in the World". geology.com.
  13. ↑ "Chimborazo, el volcán de Ecuador más alto que el Everest (si se mide desde el centro de la Tierra)". BBC Mundo. 7 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
  14. ↑ Klenke, Paul. "Distance to the Center of the Earth". Summit Post. Retrieved 4 July 2018.
  15. ↑ "Andes Website – Information about Ojos del Salado volcano, a high mountain in South America and the world's highest volcano" . Retrieved 18 January 2013.
  16. ↑ "The Highest Lake in the World". Archived from the original on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  17. ↑ "ASTER measurement of supraglacial lakes in the Mount Everest region of the Himalaya: The main Khumbu Glacier is about 17 km long with elevations ranging from 4900m at the terminus to 7600m at the source....The 7600m to 8000m elevations are also depicted on numerous detailed topographic maps" . Retrieved 24 November 2008.
  18. ↑ "The Mystery of World's highest river and largest Canyon". Archived from the original on 21 September 2007. Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  19. ↑ "Island Superlatives" . Retrieved 7 September 2007.
  20. ↑ McIntyre, Loren (April 1987). "The High Andes". National Geographic. 171 (4). National Geographic Society: 422–460. (includes description and photos of Aucanquilcha summit road and mine)
  21. ↑ "Battle for the Highest Motorable Road". Motoroids. 17 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017.
  22. ↑ China Border | Umling La Pass [ World's Highest Motorable Road ] | Ep-26 | Tripura to Ladakh Ride . Retrieved 31 December 2022– via YouTube.
  23. ↑ Assumpció Térmens (20 March 2006). "ICC – Semo Khardung" (PDF). viewfinderpanoramas.org. Institut Cartogràfic de Catalunya. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  24. ↑ Bennett, Suzy (October 2003). "Destination Guides – World's highest railway, Peru – Wanderlust Travel Magazine". Wanderlust Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
  25. ↑ Ben Blanchard (16 September 2013). "China opens world's highest civilian airport". Reuters. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  26. ↑ "Siachen: The world's highest cold war". CNN. 20 May 2002. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  27. ↑ "Carrel refuge". summitpost.org.
  28. ↑ "Challenger Deep – the Mariana Trench". Archived from the original on 24 April 2006. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  29. ↑ "Deepest Submarine Dive in History, Five Deeps Expedition Conquers Challenger Deep" (PDF). fivedeeps.com. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
  30. ↑ Weinman, Steve (15 July 2022). "Deep-sea mapper can't get much deeper! - Divernet". divernet.com. Retrieved 1 January 2023.
  31. ↑ Dubliansky VN, Klimchuk AB, Kiselev VE, Vakhrushev BA, Kovalev YN, Melnikov VP, Ryzhkov AF, Tintilozov ZK, Chuykov VD, Churubrova ML. "Описания пещер массива Арабика - 63.Пещерная система Арабикская" [Descriptions of caves of the Arabika massif - 63.Arabikskaja cave system] (in Russian). Retrieved 2020-01-12.
  32. ↑ Jonathan Amos (12 December 2019). "Denman Glacier: Deepest point on land found in Antarctica". BBC . Retrieved 13 December 2019.
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