Circumplanetary disk

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Circumplanetary disk around exoplanet PDS 70c (point-like source on the right side) PDS 70 closeup - eso2111a.jpg
Circumplanetary disk around exoplanet PDS 70c (point-like source on the right side)

A circumplanetary disk (or circumplanetary disc, short CPD) is a torus, pancake or ring-shaped accumulation of matter composed of gas, dust, planetesimals, asteroids or collision fragments in orbit around a planet. They are reservoirs of material out of which moons (or exomoons or subsatellites) may form. [1] Such a disk can manifest itself in various ways.

Contents

In August 2018, astronomers reported the probable detection of a circumplanetary disk around CS Cha B. [2] The authors state that "The CS Cha system is the only system in which a circumplanetary disc is likely present as well as a resolved circumstellar disc." [3] In 2020 though, the parameters of CS Cha B were revised, making it an accreting red dwarf star, and making the disk circumstellar. [4]

Theory

Hydrodynamic simulation of the inner part of a circumplanetary disk after exomoons were added to the disk. Simulation by Sun et al. Circumplanetary disk simulation with added exomoons.jpg
Hydrodynamic simulation of the inner part of a circumplanetary disk after exomoons were added to the disk. Simulation by Sun et al.

A giant planet will mainly form via core accretion. In this scenario a core forms via the accretion of small solids. Once the core is massive enough it might carve a gap onto the circumstellar disk around the host star. Material will flow from the edges of the circumstellar disk towards the planet in streams and around the planet it will form a circumplanetary disk. A circumplanetary disk does therefore form during the late stage of giant planet formation. [6] [7] The size of the disk is limited by the Hill radius. A circumplanetary disk will have a maximal disk size of 0.4 times the Hill radius. [8] [9] The disk also has a "dead zone" at the mid-plane that is non-turbulent and a turbulent disk surface. The dead zone is a favourable region for satellites (exomoons) to form. [10] The circumplanetary disk will go through different stages of evolution. A classification similar to young stellar objects was proposed. In the early stage the circumplanetary disk will be full. Newly forming satellites will carve a gap close to the planet, turning the disk into a "transitional" disk. In the last stage the disk is full, but has a low density and can be classified as "evolved". [5] Additional to a circumplanetary disk, a protoplanet can also drive an outflow. [11] [12] One such outflow is identified via shocked SiS for HD 169142b. [13]

Circumplanetary disks are consistent with the formation of the Galilean satellites. The older models at the time were not consistent with the icy composition of the moons and the incomplete differentiation of Callisto. A circumplanetary disk with an inflow of 2*10-7MJ/year of gas and solids was consistent with the conditions needed to form the moons, including the low temperature during the late stage of the formation of Jupiter. [14] But later simulations found the circumplanetary disk too hot for the satellites to form and survive. [15] [9] This was later solved by introducing the dead zone within circumplanetary disks which is a favourable region for satellite formation and explains the compact orbit of Galilean satellites. [10]

Candidates around other exoplanets

Possible circumplanetary disks have also been detected around exoplanets, HD 100546 b, [16] AS 209 b [17] and HD 169142 b [18] or planetary-mass companions (PMC; 10-20 MJ, separation ≥100 AU), such as GSC 06214-00210 b [19] and DH Tauri b. [20]

A disk was detected in sub-mm with ALMA around SR 12 c, a planetary-mass companion. SR 12 c might not have formed from the circumstellar disk material of the host star SR 12, so it might not be considered a true circumplanetary disk. PMC disks are relative common around young objects and are easier to study when compared to circumplanetary disks. [21] The protoplanet Delorme 1 (AB)b shows strong evidence of accretion from a circumplanetary disk, but the disk is as of now (September 2024) not detected in the infrared. [22]

Several disks were detected around nearby isolated planetary-mass objects. Disks around such objects within 300 parsecs were found in Rho Ophiuchi Complex, [23] Taurus Complex (e.g. KPNO-Tau 12), [23] [24] Lupus I Cloud [25] and the Chamaeleon Complex (e.g. the well studied OTS 44 and Cha 110913−773444 [26] ). One remarkable close free-floating disk-bearing object is 2MASS J11151597+1937266, which is only 45 parsec distant. It could be a planetary-mass object or a low-mass brown dwarf. [27] These objects with disks are free-floating and are most of the time called circumstellar disks, despite likely being similar to circumplanetary disks.

2M1207b was suspected to have a circumplanetary disk in the past. [28] New observations from JWST/NIRSpec were able to confirm accretion from an unseen disk by detecting emission from hydrogen and helium. The classification of a circumplanetary disk is however being disputed because 2M1207b (or 2M1207B) might be classified as a binary together with 2M1207A and not an exoplanet. This would make the disk around 2M1207b a circumstellar disk, despite not being around a star, but around a 5-6 MJup planetary-mass object. [29]

PDS 70

The disk around the planet c of the PDS 70 system is the best evidence for a circumplanetary disk at the time of its discovery. The exoplanet is part of the multiplanetary PDS 70 star system, about 370 light-years (110 parsecs) from Earth. [30]

PDS 70b

In June 2019 astronomers reported the detection of evidence of a circumplanetary disk around PDS 70b [31] using spectroscopy and accretion signatures. Both types of these signatures had previously been detected for other planetary candidates. A later infrared characterization could not confirm the spectroscopic evidence for the disk around PDS 70b and reports weak evidence that the current data favors a model with a single blackbody component. [32] Interferometric observations with JWST NIRISS and archived data found that PDS 70b has a circumplanetary disk. [33]

PDS 70c

In July 2019 astronomers reported the first-ever detection using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) [34] [35] [36] of a circumplanetary disk. [34] [35] [37] ALMA studies, using millimetre and submillimetre wavelengths, are better at observing dust concentrated in interplanetary regions, since stars emit comparatively little light at these wavelengths, and since optical observations are often obscured by overwhelming glare from the bright host star. The circumplanetary disk was detected around a young massive, Jupiter-like exoplanet, PDS 70c. [34] [35] [37]

According to Andrea Isella, lead researcher from the Rice University in Houston, Texas, "For the first time, we can conclusively see the tell-tale signs of a circumplanetary disk, which helps to support many of the current theories of planet formation ... By comparing our observations to the high-resolution infrared and optical images, we can clearly see that an otherwise enigmatic concentration of tiny dust particles is actually a planet-girding disk of dust, the first such feature ever conclusively observed." [36] Jason Wang from Caltech, lead researcher of another publication, describes, "if a planet appears to sit on top of the disk, which is the case with PDS 70c" [38] then the signal around PDS 70c needs to be spatially separated from the outer ring, not the case in 2019. However, in July 2021 higher resolution, conclusively resolved data were presented. [39]

The planet PDS 70c is detected in H-alpha, which is seen as evidence that it accretes material from the circumplanetary disk at a rate of 10−8±0.4 MJ per year. [40] From ALMA observations it was shown that this disk has a radius smaller than 1.2 astronomical units (AU) or a third of the Hill radius. The dust mass was estimated around 0.007 or 0.031 ME (0.57 to 2.5 Moon masses), depending on the grain size used for the modelling. [39] Later modelling showed that the disk around PDS 70c is optically thick and has an estimated dust mass of 0.07 to 0.7 ME (5.7 to 57 Moon masses). The total (dust+gas) mass of the disk should be higher. The planet's luminosity is the dominant heating mechanism within 0.6 AU of the CPD. Beyond that the photons from the star heat the disk. [41] Observations with JWST NIRCam showed a large spiral-like feature near PDS 70c. This feature is only seen after the disk around PDS 70 was removed. Part of this spiral-like feature was interpreted as an accretion stream that feeds the circumplanetary disk around PDS 70c. [42]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protoplanetary disk</span> Gas and dust surrounding a newly formed star

A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disc of dense gas and dust surrounding a young newly formed star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star. The protoplanetary disk may not be considered an accretion disk, while the two are similar. While they are similar, an accretion disk is hotter, and spins much faster. It is also found on black holes, not stars. This process should not be confused with the accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves. Externally illuminated photo-evaporating protoplanetary disks are called proplyds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proplyd</span> Dust ring surrounding large stars thousands of solar radii wide

A proplyd, short for ionized protoplanetary disk, is an externally illuminated photoevaporating protoplanetary disk around a young star. Nearly 180 proplyds have been discovered in the Orion Nebula. Images of proplyds in other star-forming regions are rare, while Orion is the only region with a large known sample due to its relative proximity to Earth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protoplanet</span> Large planetary embryo

A protoplanet is a large planetary embryo that originated within a protoplanetary disk and has undergone internal melting to produce a differentiated interior. Protoplanets are thought to form out of kilometer-sized planetesimals that gravitationally perturb each other's orbits and collide, gradually coalescing into the dominant planets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rogue planet</span> Planets not gravitationally bound to a star

A rogue planet, also termed a free-floating planet (FFP) or an isolated planetary-mass object (iPMO), is an interstellar object of planetary mass which is not gravitationally bound to any star or brown dwarf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GQ Lupi b</span> Exoplanet candidate orbiting GQ Lupi. Either a brown dwarf or exoplanet.

GQ Lupi b, or GQ Lupi B, is a possible extrasolar planet, brown dwarf or sub-brown dwarf orbiting the star GQ Lupi. Its discovery was announced in April 2005, less than a month before the full confirmation of 2M1207b was announced. Along with 2M1207b, this was one of the first extrasolar planet candidates to be directly imaged. The image was made with the European Southern Observatory's VLT telescope at the Paranal Observatory, Chile on June 25, 2004.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2M1207b</span> Planetary-mass object orbiting the brown dwarf 2M1207

2M1207b is a planetary-mass object orbiting the brown dwarf 2M1207, in the constellation Centaurus, approximately 170 light-years from Earth. It is one of the first candidate exoplanets to be directly observed. It was discovered in April 2004 by the Very Large Telescope (VLT) at the Paranal Observatory in Chile by a team from the European Southern Observatory led by Gaël Chauvin. It is believed to be from 5 to 6 times the mass of Jupiter and may orbit 2M1207 at a distance roughly as far from the brown dwarf as Pluto is from the Sun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">OTS 44</span> Celestial object in the constellation Chamaeleon

OTS 44 is a free-floating planetary-mass object or brown dwarf located at 530 light-years (160 pc) in the constellation Chamaeleon near the reflection nebula IC 2631. It is among the lowest-mass free-floating substellar objects, with approximately 11.5 times the mass of Jupiter, or approximately 1.1% that of the Sun. Its radius is estimated to be 3.2 or 3.6 times that of Jupiter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HD 100546</span> Star in the constellation Musca

HD 100546, also known as KR Muscae, is a pre-main sequence star of spectral type B8 to A0 located 353 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation of Musca. The star is surrounded by a circumstellar disk from a distance of 0.2 to 4 AU, and again from 13 AU out to a few hundred AU, with evidence for a protoplanet forming at a distance of around 47 AU.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AB Aurigae</span> Star in the constellation Auriga

AB Aurigae is a young Herbig Ae star in the Auriga constellation. It is located at a distance of approximately 531 light years from the Sun based on stellar parallax. This pre-main-sequence star has a stellar classification of A0Ve, matching an A-type main-sequence star with emission lines in the spectrum. It has 2.4 times the mass of the Sun and is radiating 38 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 9,772 K. The radio emission from the system suggests the presence of a thermal jet originating from the star with a velocity of 300 km s−1. This is causing an estimated mass loss of 1.7×10−8 M☉ yr−1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Circumstellar disc</span> Accumulation of matter around a star

A circumstellar disc is a torus, pancake or ring-shaped accretion disk of matter composed of gas, dust, planetesimals, asteroids, or collision fragments in orbit around a star. Around the youngest stars, they are the reservoirs of material out of which planets may form. Around mature stars, they indicate that planetesimal formation has taken place, and around white dwarfs, they indicate that planetary material survived the whole of stellar evolution. Such a disc can manifest itself in various ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">HD 169142</span> Pre-main-sequence star in the constellation Sagittarius

HD 169142 is a single Herbig Ae/Be star. Its surface temperature is 7650±150 K. HD 169142 is depleted of heavy elements compared to the Sun, with a metallicity Fe/H index of −0.375±0.125, but is much younger at an age of 7.5±4.5 million years. The star is rotating slowly and has relatively low stellar activity for a Herbig Ae/Be star.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LkCa 15</span> Star system in the constellation Taurus

LkCa 15 is a T Tauri star in the Taurus Molecular Cloud. These types of stars are relatively young pre-main-sequence stars that show irregular variations in brightness. It has a mass that is about 97% of the Sun, an effective temperature of 4370 K, and is slightly cooler than the Sun. Its apparent magnitude is 11.91, meaning it is not visible to the naked eye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PDS 70</span> T Tauri-type star in the constellation Centaurus

PDS 70 is a very young T Tauri star in the constellation Centaurus. Located 370 light-years from Earth, it has a mass of 0.76 M☉ and is approximately 5.4 million years old. The star has a protoplanetary disk containing two nascent exoplanets, named PDS 70b and PDS 70c, which have been directly imaged by the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope. PDS 70b was the first confirmed protoplanet to be directly imaged.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CI Tauri</span> Star in the constellation Taurus

CI Tauri is a young star, about 2 million years old, located approximately 523 light-years away in the constellation Taurus. It is still accreting material from a debris disk at an unsteady pace, possibly modulated by the eccentric orbital motion of an inner planet. The spectral signatures of compounds of sulfur were detected from the disk.

A Peter Pan disk is a circumstellar disk around a star or brown dwarf that appears to have retained enough gas to form a gas giant planet for much longer than the typically assumed gas dispersal timescale of approximately 5 million years. Several examples of such disks have been observed to orbit stars with spectral types of M or later. The presence of gas around these disks has generally been inferred from the total amount of radiation emitted from the disk at infrared wavelengths, and/or spectroscopic signatures of hydrogen accreting onto the star. To fit one specific definition of a Peter Pan disk, the source needs to have an infrared "color" of , an age of >20 Myr and spectroscopic evidence of accretion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AK Scorpii</span> Binary star in the constellation Scorpius

AK Scorpii is a Herbig Ae/Be star and spectroscopic binary star about 459 light-years distant in the constellation Scorpius. The star belongs to the nearby Upper Centaurus–Lupus star-forming region and the star is actively accreting material. The binary is surrounded by a circumbinary disk that was imaged with VLT/SPHERE in scattered light and with ALMA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Delorme 1</span> Binary star system in the Phoenix constellation

Delorme 1 is a binary star with a planetary-mass companion (PMC) or protoplanet in a circumbinary orbit. The PMC is notable for showing signs of accretion, despite being 30-45 Myr old, making it similar to Peter Pan disks. These disks show characteristics of a gas-rich disk at unexpected high ages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SR 12 (star)</span> SR 12 is a T-Tauri star

SR 12 is a weak-line T-Tauri binary that has a planetary-mass companion with a detected accretion disk.

References

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