| Huhu beetle | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Prionoplus reticularis illustration by Des Helmore | |
Scientific classification  | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Family: | Cerambycidae |
| Subfamily: | Prioninae |
| Tribe: | Anacolini |
| Genus: | Prionoplus |
| Species: | P. reticularis |
| Binomial name | |
| Prionoplus reticularis White, 1843 | |
The huhu beetle (Prionoplus reticularis) is a longhorn beetle endemic to New Zealand. It is the heaviest beetle found in New Zealand.
To Māori, the larval form is known as huhu (also tunga haere, tunga rākau) with the adult stage known as pepe-te-muimui. [1] [2] However, the larval and adult forms are commonly referred to as the huhu grub and huhu beetle, respectively.
As the huhu larva reaches maturity it ceases to bore in wood and casts its skin. This still edible stage is known in Māori as tataka. It then develops wings and legs, and while it is still white, it is known as pepe. Finally, it emerges and flies off to reproduce and is known as tunga rere. [2]
Female adult huhu beetles oviposit their 3mm cigar-shaped eggs in clutches of 10–50, though up to 100 may be found. [3] [4] [5] Eggs are laid in cryptic sites or in cracks in the bark of fallen wood. [5] In laboratory conditions of 20°C ± 2°C and a relative humidity of c. 75%, eggs hatched in 23 ± 2 days. [5]
Before hatching, the larva can be seen to move inside the egg and will break free from the egg using its mandibles to pierce the chorion of the egg and then enlarging the opening by chewing, although the chorion itself is not ingested. [5] Setae that are found on abdominal segments 1-6 assist in providing support as the larva leaves the egg and excavates the initial gallery. [5]
The whitish-coloured larvae measure up to 70 millimetres (2.8 in) long and normally feed on dead wood of gymnosperms (mainly native and introduced conifers) associated with lowland podocarp forest. [6] Larval duration of P. reticularis is two to three years in the wild. [3] Under laboratory conditions, larval duration has been reduced to c. 250 days using an artificial diet and maintaining a temperature of 20°C. [7] In its final instar the larva moves to within 7.5 - 10cm of the surface of the wood before constructing the pupal chamber. [5] The pupal chamber is constructed by enlarging the diameter of the normal gallery over a period of one to three days. This process creates fragments of wood similar to wood shavings about 3cm by 1cm in size which are then packed into the larval gallery to form a plug. [5] Once the plug is completed the larva lines the walls of the pupal chamber with the last frass voided from its gut. [5] The larva then undergoes a resting period of around ten to fifteen days where the abdominal segments contract and the body darkens slightly whereupon it moults into a pupa. [5]
The pupal phase lasts around 25 days with gametogenesis being completed during this stage. [5] [8] Eclosion occurs with a rupture along the frontal suture followed by a longitudinal rupture to the posterior border of the mesothorax. [5] The head, feet and wings are freed during arching movements of the body through the ruptured cuticle. [5] The emerged adult may then enter an inactive period of three to five days prior to creating an exit tunnel out of the pupal cavity. [5]
Following pupation and emergence, the adult beetle does not eat and lives for approximately two weeks. [2]
The beetles are nocturnal and are attracted by the lights of dwellings as noted by Hudson in 1892 "it is greatly attracted to light, and this propensity frequently leads it on summer evenings to invade ladies' drawing-rooms, when its sudden and noisy arrival is apt to cause much needless consternation amongst the inmates". [9] [10] They have powerful mandibles, which can produce a painful bite.
Adult females of P. reticularis produce an olfactory cue which attract adult males to the female. [11] Adult individuals of both sexes will show a display behaviour if disturbed with the head jutting forward, mandibles opening to their full extent, antennae flailing and the head being raised and lowered. [11] High intensity displays between individuals may lead to combat with preliminary grappling occurring with fore legs which usually results in an individual being thrown onto its back. Any object coming into contact with the mandibles is seized frequently resulting in the loss of appendages. [11]
The larvae of P. reticularis are edible to humans, with a long history of indigenous consumption, and their flavour has been described as like buttery chicken [12] or peanut butter. [13] There are different names in Māori for grubs at different stages of development, for example young larvae still actively feeding on timber are called tunga haere or tunga rākau, while full grown grubs which have ceased to feed and are preparing to pupate are called tataka and are the most prized (because there is no undigested wood pulp inside of them at this point). Huhu grubs may be consumed either raw or traditionally cooked in a Hāngī, and are an especially rich source of fat in the New Zealand wilderness. [14]
P. reticularis contains substantial amounts of nutrients. The larvae and pupae are relatively high in fat (up to 45% and 58% dry weight in large larvae and pupae respectively). [15] The fat in huhu grubs is mostly oleic acid and palmitic acid. [15] The second most abundant nutrient is protein, which is present at 30% dry weight in the large larvae, and close to 28% dry weight in the pupae. [15] Protein extracts from huhu larvae and pupae are high in essential amino acids such as isoleucine, lysine, leucine, and valine. [16] The total essential amino acid content of huhu grubs meets the WHO essential amino acid requirements for human nutrition. [16] The essential amino acid content of huhu is significantly higher than that of mealworms, and is comparable to beef and chickpeas. [16] When reconstituted in water, the protein powders of huhu larvae and pupae are able to form stable foams and emulsions. The ash content (representing minerals) of huhu grubs is 1.8% dry weight in large larvae, and 2.2% in pupae. [15] The minerals include manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, and zinc. [17]
Bombyx mori, commonly known as the domestic silk moth, is a moth species belonging to the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of Bombyx mandarina, the wild silk moth. Silkworms are the larvae of silk moths. The silkworm is of particular economic value, being a primary producer of silk. The silkworm's preferred food are the leaves of white mulberry, though they may eat other species of mulberry, and even leaves of other plants like the osage orange. Domestic silk moths are entirely dependent on humans for reproduction, as a result of millennia of selective breeding. Wild silk moths, which are other species of Bombyx, are not as commercially viable in the production of silk.
A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their life cycle, the stages thereof being egg, larva, pupa, and imago. The processes of entering and completing the pupal stage are controlled by the insect's hormones, especially juvenile hormone, prothoracicotropic hormone, and ecdysone. The act of becoming a pupa is called pupation, and the act of emerging from the pupal case is called eclosion or emergence.
Holometabolism, also called complete metamorphosis, is a form of insect development which includes four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and imago. Holometabolism is a synapomorphic trait of all insects in the superorder Holometabola. Immature stages of holometabolous insects are very different from the mature stage. In some species the holometabolous life cycle prevents larvae from competing with adults because they inhabit different ecological niches. The morphology and behavior of each stage are adapted for different activities. For example, larval traits maximize feeding, growth, and development, while adult traits enable dispersal, mating, and egg laying. Some species of holometabolous insects protect and feed their offspring. Other insect developmental strategies include ametabolism and hemimetabolism.
Dynastes tityus, the eastern Hercules beetle, is a species of rhinoceros beetle native to the Eastern United States. The adult's elytra are green, gray or tan, with black markings, and the whole animal, including the male's horns, may reach 60 mm (2.4 in) in length. The larvae feed on decaying wood from various trees.
Arachnocampa is a genus of nine fungus gnat species which have a bioluminescent larval stage, akin to the larval stage of glowworm beetles. The species of Arachnocampa are endemic to Australia and New Zealand, dwelling in caves and grottos, or sheltered places in forests.
The Goliath beetles are any of the six species in the genus Goliathus. Goliath beetles are among the largest insects on Earth, if measured in terms of size, bulk and weight. They are members of subfamily Cetoniinae, within the family Scarabaeidae. Goliath beetles can be found in many of Africa's tropical forests, where they feed primarily on tree sap and fruit. Little appears to be known of the larval cycle in the wild, but in captivity, Goliathus beetles have been successfully reared from egg to adult using protein-rich foods such as commercial cat and dog food. Goliath beetles measure from 60–110 millimetres (2.4–4.3 in) for males and 50–80 millimetres (2.0–3.1 in) for females, as adults, and can reach weights of up to 80–100 grams (2.8–3.5 oz) in the larval stage, though the adults are only about half this weight. The females range from a dark chestnut brown to silky white, but the males are normally brown/white/black or black/white.
Arachnocampa luminosa, commonly known as New Zealand glowworm or simply glowworm, is a species of fungus gnat endemic to New Zealand. The larval stage and the imago produce a blue-green bioluminescence. The species is known to dwell in caves and on sheltered banks in native bush where humidity is high. Its Māori name is titiwai, meaning "projected over water".
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The wharf borer, Nacerdes melanura, belongs to the insect order Coleoptera, the beetles. They belong to the family Oedemeridae, known as false blister beetles. Wharf borers are present in all the states of the USA except for Florida. It takes about a year to develop from an egg to an adult. The name 'wharf borer' comes from the larval stage of this insect, which often lingers on pilings and timbers of wharves, especially along coastal areas. The adult beetles are identifiable via a black band across the end of both elytra. In addition, wharf borers are distinct from other members of the family Oedemeridae due to the presence of a single spur on the tibia of the forelegs and the distance between both eyes. The female beetle oviposits eggs on rotten wood, on which the larvae hatch, burrow, then feed. Adults do not eat and depend on stored energy reserves accumulated as a larva. They are considered a pest because they damage wood used in building infrastructures.
Jalmenus evagoras, the imperial hairstreak, imperial blue, or common imperial blue, is a small, metallic blue butterfly of the family Lycaenidae. It is commonly found in eastern coastal regions of Australia. This species is notable for its unique mutualism with ants of the genus Iridomyrmex. The ants provide protection for juveniles and cues for adult mating behavior. They are compensated with food secreted from J. evagoras larvae. The ants greatly enhance the survival and reproductive success of the butterflies. J. evagoras lives and feeds on Acacia plants, so butterfly populations are localized to areas with preferred species of both host plants and ants.
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The European chafer is a beetle of the family Scarabaeidae. Formerly found only in continental Europe, this invasive species is now found at temperate latitudes in North America. The large, white grubs of A. majale feed on the roots of most cool-latitude grasses, both wild and cultivated. This has made the European chafer an enemy of lawns.
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Diamphidia nigroornata or Bushman arrow-poison beetle, is an African leaf beetle species in the genus Diamphidia.
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Pyronota festiva, commonly known as mānuka beetle or mānuka chafer, is a member of the genus Pyronota of the beetle family Scarabaeidae. It is a scarab beetle endemic to New Zealand, and is commonly found in mānuka trees, hence the beetle's name. In some areas it is considered a pasture pest.
Costelytra giveni, commonly known as New Zealand grass grub, is a scarab beetle that is endemic to New Zealand and is a prevalent pasture pest.
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Oemona hirta, the lemon tree borer, also known as the whistling beetle or the singing beetle, is a longhorn beetle endemic to New Zealand. Its larvae are generalist feeders, boring into the wood of a wide variety of trees, native and introduced. When citrus orchards were first established in New Zealand, this beetle started inflicting serious damage, and so gained the name "lemon tree borer". Four species within the genus Oemona have been identified, suggesting that more species could be found. When disturbed by predators or humans, the adult beetle stridulates creating a "rasp" or "squeak" sound by rubbing its thorax and head together against an area of thin ridges. Māori would eat a liquid called "pia manuka", which was produced by manuka trees when its wood was damaged by the larvae. When Captain Cook first arrived in NZ, his naturalists, Banks and Solander, collected a lemon tree borer in their first collection between 1769 and 1771. This oldest collected specimen can be found in the British Museum. A few years after the first collection, the species would be first described by the Danish naturalist Fabricius in 1775.
The prepupa is a stage in the life cycle of certain insects, following the larva or nymph and preceding the pupa. It occurs in both holometabolous and hemimetabolous insects.
