The term "Kirat" has a rich and complex etymology rooted in the cultural and historical contexts of the eastern Himalayas. The Kirat people, who are indigenous to the region encompassing parts of Nepal, India, and Bhutan, trace their name back to ancient traditions and languages. The etymology of "Kirat" is believed to derive from the Sanskrit term "Kirāta," which originally referred to the indigenous tribes of the region, particularly those living in the hilly and mountainous areas of ancient India. In Sanskrit and classical texts, "Kirāta" was used to describe the people inhabiting the rugged terrains of the eastern Himalayas, who were perceived as different from the Aryan settlers of the Indo-Gangetic plains. This designation was not merely a label but reflected the distinct cultural, linguistic, and ethnic identities of the groups living in these regions.
The term "Kirat" has evolved over time to encompass a broad array of ethnic groups within the Himalayas, including the Rai, Limbu, and other related communities. These groups have their own unique languages, customs, and traditions, yet share common cultural elements that tie them to the broader Kirat identity. The Kirat people have historically been known for their animistic beliefs and practices, which are deeply interwoven with the natural environment of the Himalayas. Their spiritual and cultural narratives often highlight a harmonious relationship with nature and ancestral worship.
The historical use of "Kirat" in ancient Indian texts, including the epic Mahabharata and various Puranas, signifies a recognition of these people as distinct from the dominant Indo-Aryan civilizations. Over centuries, the term has come to embody a shared cultural heritage among the various ethnic groups in the region, despite their diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The modern understanding of "Kirat" reflects both the historical context and the ongoing cultural evolution of these communities, who continue to preserve their heritage while engaging with contemporary issues of identity and recognition.
Thus, the etymology of "Kirat" is not just a linguistic exercise but a reflection of the rich tapestry of historical migration, cultural adaptation, and the evolving identity of the Himalayan peoples. The term encapsulates the resilience and diversity of the Kirat communities, whose histories are deeply interwoven with the mountainous landscapes they inhabit.
Contemporary historians widely agree that widespread cultural exchange and intermarriage took place in the eastern Himalayan region between the indigenous inhabitants — called the Kirat — and the Tibetan migrant population, reaching a climax during the 8th and 9th centuries.
Another wave of political and cultural conflict between Khas and Kirat ideals surfaced in the Kirat region of present-day Nepal during the last quarter of the 18th century. A collection of manuscripts from the 18th and 19th centuries, till now unpublished and unstudied by historians, have made possible a new understanding of this conflict. These historical sources are among those collected by Brian Houghton Hodgson (a British diplomat and self-trained orientalist appointed to the Kathmandu court during the second quarter of the 19th century) and his principal research aide, the scholar Khardar Jitmohan.
For over two millennia, a large portion of the eastern Himalaya was identified as the home of the Kirat people, of which the majority are known today as Chamling, Limbu, Rai/Khambu, Sunuwar, and Yakkha. In ancient times, the entire Himalayan region was known as the Kimpurusha DeshaKimpurusha Kingdom (also, Kirata Pradesh).
For over a millennium, the Kirat had inhabited the Kathmandu Valley, where they installed their own ruling dynasty. According to the history of Nepal, the Kirats ruled for about 1100 years (800 BC–300 AD). Their reign had 29 kings. The Kirat population in the valley and the original Australoids and Austro-Asiatic speakers form the base for what had developed into today's Newar population. As time passed, other Kirat groups, now known as Limbu, Rai, Yakkha and Sunuwar settled mostly in the Koshi region of present-day Sikkim, Darjeeling and eastern Nepal. The Limbu people have their own distinct form of Kirat Mundhum, known as Yuma Sammang or Yumaism; they venerate a mythological goddess called Tagera Ningwaphumang.
In addition to ancestor worship, Kirati people also worship Mother Nature.
From around the 8th century, areas on the northern frontier of the Kirat region began to fall under the domination of migrant people of Tibetan origin. This flux of migration brought about the domination by Tibetan religious and cultural practices over ancient Kirat traditions. This influence first introduced shamanistic Bön practices, which in turn were later replaced by the oldest form of Tibetan Buddhism. The early influx of Bön culture to the peripheral Himalayan regions occurred only after the advent of Nyingma, the oldest Buddhist order in Lhasa and Central Tibet, which led followers of the older religion to flee to the Kirat area for survival. The Tibetan cultural influx ultimately laid the foundation for a Tibetan politico-religious order in the Kirat regions, and this led to the emergence of two major Tibetan Buddhist dynasties, one in Sikkim and another in Bhutan. The early political order of the Kingdom of Bhutan Hadgaon been established under the political and spiritual leadership of the lama Zhabs-drungNgawang Namgyal.
Te-ongsi Sirijunga Xin Thebe
The Limbu script. Gray letters are obsolete.
Te-ongsi Sirijunga Xin Thebe was an 18th-century Limbu scholar, teacher, educator, historian, and philosopher of Limbuwan (pallo kirat) and Sikkim. Sirijanga researched and taught the Limbu script, Limbu language and religion of the Limbus in various part of Limbuwan (Pallo Kirat) and Sikkim. He revived the old Limbu script developed in the 9th century.
History of Limbuwan: Kirat people of Limbu nationality
Limbuwan has a language spoken by the yakthung tribe which falls in the Sino Tibetan language family. Their language uses a form of brahmic script called "The Sirijunga Script" which was originally created by Sirijunga Hang during the 9th century A.D. The script lost prominence for some 600 years and was later revived by Limbu Scholar Sirijunga Sing-Thebe (Teongsi Sirijuga). Limbuwan had a distinct history and political establishment until its unification with the kingdom of Gorkha in 1774 AD. During King Prithvi Narayan Shah's unification of Nepal, the present-day Nepal east of Arun and west of Mechi rivers was known as Limbuwan (pallo kirat). It was divided into 10 Limbu kingdoms; Morang kingdom was the most powerful and had a central government. The capital of Morang kingdom was Bijaypur (present-day Dharan). The Gorkha conquest had reached the walls of limbuwan and were now battering on the doors. A total of 17 recorded battles took place between the Kingdom of Gorkha and the Kingdom of Limbuwan/Yakthunglajey. After the Limbuwan–Gorkha war and seeing the threat of the rising power of the British East India Company the kings and ministers of some of the provinces of Yakthung laje ("thibong Yakthung laje") kingdoms of Limbuwan gathered in Bijaypur, and they agreed upon the Limbuwan-Gorkha Treaty ("Nun-Pani Sandhi"). This treaty formally merged some of the Limbu provinces into the Gorkha kingdom but it also had a provision for autonomy of Limbuwan under the "kipat" system.
Kiratology
Kiratology is the study of Kirats the Mundhum along with history, cultures, languages and literatures of Kirat ethnic people in Nepal, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Assam, Myanmar, and so on. The Mundum or Mundhum is the book of knowledge on origin, history, culture, occupation and traditions of Kirati people. Noted scholars on Kiratology so far is Iman Xin Chemjong who did ground breaking contributions on kirat Mundum/Mundhum, history, cultures, and languages. After Chemjong, PS Muringla, BB Muringla and Bairagi Kainla also contributed towards Kiratology.
After the end of Rana Regime in 2007 BS (1951 AD), when power came back to Shah dynasty the autonomous power given to Limbu Kings was reduced. When King Mahendra ascended the throne he banished the law which prohibits other tribes right to buy land without permission of Subba (Head of Limbu) of particular area as well as levy and taxes to Subba in 1979.
32 Kirat Kings who ruled in Kathmandu Valley
According to chronicle of Bansawali William Kirk Patrick[4] and Daniel Wright,[5] the Kirata kings of the Nepal Valley were:
King Shree Yalambar – 90 years/ राजा श्री यलम्बर - ९० वर्ष
King Shree Palamba – 81 years/राजा श्री पलाम्बा- ८१ वर्ष
King Shree Melam – 89 years/राजा श्री मेलं - ८९ वर्ष
King Shree Changming – 42 years/राजा श्री चंमिं - ४२ वर्ष
King Shree Dhakang – 37 years/राजा श्री धस्कं - ३७ वर्ष
King Shree Walangcha – 31 years 6 months/राजा श्री वलंच - ३१ वर्ष ६ महिना
King Shree Jite Dasti – 40 years 8 months/राजा श्री जिते दस्ति - ४० वर्ष ८ mahina
King Shree Hoorma – 50 years/राजा श्री हुरमा - ५० वर्ष
King Shree Tooske – 41 years 8 months/राजा श्री तुस्के - ४१ वर्ष ८ महिना
King Shree Prasaphung – 38 years 6 months/राजा श्री प्रसफुं - ३८ वर्ष ६ महिना
King Shree Pawa: – 46 years/राजा श्री पवः - ४६ वर्ष
King Shree Daasti – 40 years/राजा श्री दास्ती - ४० वर्ष
King Shree Chamba – 71 years/राजा श्री चम्ब - ७१ वर्ष
King Shree Stungko – 54 years/राजा श्री स्तुङको - ५४ वर्ष
King Shree Swananda – 40 years 6 months/राजा श्री स्वनन्द - ४० वर्ष ६ महिना
King Shree Phukong – 58 years/राजा श्री फुकों - ५८ वर्ष
King Shree Singhu – 49 years 6 months/राजा श्री शिंघु - ४९ वर्ष ६ महिना
King Shree Joolam – 73 years 3 months/राजा श्री जुलम् - ७३ वर्ष ३ महिना
King Shree Lukan – 40 years/राजा श्री लुकं - ४० वर्ष
King Shree Samdhung – 80 years/राजा श्री सामढुङ -८० वर्ष
King Shree Thoram – 71 years/राजा श्री थोरम् - ७१ वर्ष
King Shree Hang Barmma – 73 years 6 months/राजा श्री हाङ वर्म्म - ७३ वर्ष ६ महिना
King Shree Thuko – 83 years/राजा श्री थुको - ८३ वर्ष
King Shree Gunjong – 72 years 7 months/राजा श्री गुंजं ७२ वर्ष ७ महिना
King Shree Pushka – 81 years/राजा श्री पुस्क - ८१ वर्ष
King Shree Tyapamee – 54 years/राजा श्री त्यपमि - ५४ वर्ष
King Shree Moogmam – 58 years/राजा श्री मुगमम् - ५८ वर्ष
King Shree Shasaru – 63 years/राजा श्री शसरू - ६३ वर्ष
King Shree Goongoong – 74 years/राजा श्री गंणं - ७४ वर्ष
King Shree Khimbung – 76 years/राजा श्री खिम्बुं - ७६ वर्ष
King Shree Girijung – 81 years/राजा श्री गिरीजं - ८१ वर्ष
King Shree Khurangja – 78 years/राजा श्री खुरांज - ७८ वर्ष
King Shree Khigu – 85 years/राजा श्री खिगु - ८५ वर्ष
The Yele Sambat (Yele Era) is named after Kirat King Yalambar. 32 Kirat Kings ruled in the Kathmandu valley for 1963 years 8 months. The Lichhavi dynasty dethroned the Kirat rulers in 158 AD (evidence: statue of Jaya Barma found in Maligaun of Kathmandu). This means that Kirat King Yalambar's reign started BC 1779.8. If we calculate current 2018 + 1779.8 = 3797 is the Kirati new year in Maghe Sakranti in 2018 AD. New year is celebrated in Maghe Sakranti which is around mid-January (January 14–15).
Modern ethnic groups
The Kirati Population in Nepal number approximately one million (around five percent of the Nepalese population) and speak languages belonging to Tibeto-Burman. Kirant culture is clearly different from the Tibetan and Indo-Nepalese ones, although it has been influenced by them through long term contacts. According to census of 2011, the population of the Kirat peoples, are as following:
The Kirati ethnic groups according to 2011 Nepal Census[6][7]
In academic literature, the earliest recorded groups of the Kirati are today divided into five groups — the Yakkha, Limbu, Rai, Sunuwar, Dhimal[8] When the Shah kings conquered, they established the headman and as local rulers and were given the title Yakkha as Dewan, Khambu as Rai, Limbu as Subba, Sunuwar as Mukhiya.[9]
The Kirat groups that today identify themselves using the nomenclature 'Kirat' include the Khambu (Rai), Limbu (Subba), Sunuwar (Mukhia), Yakkha (Dewan), Thami (Thangmi) and few segments of the Kirat people like NachhiringBahing, Kulung and speakers of Khaling, Bantawa, Chamling, Thulung, Jerung, and other related ethnic groups.[10] The tripartition of the Kirat region in Eastern Nepal documented by Hodgson, divided into three region are Wallo Kirat (Near Kirat), Majh Kirat ( Middle Kirat/ Khambuwan ) and Pallo Kirat (Far Kirat/ Limbuwan).[11] The region Wallo Kirat, Majh Kirat were predominant by Khambu Kirat and Pallo Kirat were preponderance by Limbu Kirat as known as Limbuwan.[citation needed] The Yakkha, Khambu Rai, Limbu, and Sunuwar are different from one another and yet they all sit under one umbrella in many respects.[12]
The Kirati people and Kiranti languages between the rivers Likhu and Arun, including some small groups east of the Arun, are usually referred to as the Kirat people, which is a geographic grouping rather than a genetic grouping.[13] The Sunuwars inhabit the region westward of River Sun Koshi.
Other groups who claim descent from Kirat
The Kirat were among the earliest inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and a large percentage of the Newar (Jyapu) population is believed to have descended from them. The continuity of Newar society from the Kirat King Yalambar (Aakash Bhairav) and pre-Licchavi period has been discussed by many historians and anthropologists.[14][15] The language of the Newars, Nepalbhasa, a Sino-Tibetan language, is classified as a Kirati language. Similarly, the over 200 non-Sanskritic place names found in the Sanskrit inscriptions of the Licchavi period of the first millennium C.E. are acknowledged to belong to the proto-Newar language; modern variants of many of these words are still used by the Newars today to refer to geographical locations in and around Kathmandu valley.[16] Although the 14th century text Gopalarajavamsavali states that the descendants of the Kirata clan that ruled Nepal before the Licchavis resided in the region of the Tamarkoshi river,[17] a number of Newar caste and sub-caste groups and clans also claim descent from the erstwhile Kirat royal lineage.[18]
Even though most modern Newars are either Hindu or Buddhist or a mixture of the two as a result of at least two millennia of Sanskritization and practice a complicated, ritualistic religious life, vestigal non-Sanskritic elements can be seen in some of their practices that have similarities with the cultures of other Mongoloid groups in the north-east region of India.[19] Sudarshan Tiwari of Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, in his essay "The Temples of the Kirata Nepal" argues that the Newar temple technology based on brick and timber usage and the rectangular temple design used for 'Tantric' Aju and Ajima deities are pre-Licchavi in origin and reflect Newar religious values and geometrical aesthetics from the Kirati period.[20]
The Himalayan Kirat people practice Kirat Mundhum, calling it "Kirat religion". In early Kirat society, Mundhum was the only law of state.[21] Kirati people worship nature and their ancestors, and practice shamanism through Nakchhong.
Major ethnic/caste groups following Kirat Religion in Nepal 2011 Census[22][23] Some Kirat Limbus people believe in a mythological god called Tagera Ningwaphuma, a shapeless entity that appears as a bright light, and is worshipped in earthy form as the goddess Yuma Sammang and her male counterpart 'Theba Sammang'.[24][25]
The Kirat Limbu ancestor Yuma Sammang and god of war Theba Sammang are the second most important deities. The Limbus festivals are Chasok Tangnam (Harvest Festival and worship of goddess Yuma), Yokwa (Worship of Ancestors), Kirat New Year's Day (Maghey Sankranti), Ke Lang, Limbu Cultural Day, Sirijanga Birthday Anniversary.[26] Kirat Rai worship (Sumnima/Paruhang) are their cultural and religious practices.[27] The names of some of their festivals are Sakela, Sakle, Tashi, Sakewa, Saleladi Bhunmidev, and Folsyandar. They have two main festivals: Sakela/Sakewa Ubhauli during planting season and Sakela/Sakewa Udhauli during the harvest.
Brigade of Gurkhas
The British had recruited Gurkhas ethnicity-wise; four regiments were composed of Kirati tribes: Yakkha, Limbu, Rai, Sunuwar.[28] The 7th Gurkha Rifles was raised in 1902 and recruited Rai, Limbu, Yakkha, and Sunuwar from Eastern Nepal.[29] The 10th Gurkha Rifles and the regiment maintained its assigned recruiting areas in the kirat tribal areas of eastern Nepal as part of a broad reorganisation on 13 September 1901.[30]11 Gorkha Rifles composed entirely of kirati non-optees for the British Gorkhas.[31]
See also
Kirata, Sanskrit term for various ancient and mythical Himalayan peoples
Khuwalung, a rock in Koshi river sacred to Kirati people
Kirata Kingdom, mythological kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata
Kyrat, A fictional Himalayan region where the setting of the video game Far Cry 4 takes place. The ethnic, cultural, and geographical features of the game relatable to the Kyrati people cause some to infer that Ubisoft the developers somewhat were inspired by the etymology of the name and its significance.
Related Research Articles
The Rai also known as Khambu and Jimee are ethnolinguistic group belonging to the Kirat family and primarily Tibeto-Burman linguistic ethnicity. They mainly reside in the eastern parts of Nepal, the Indian states of Sikkim, West Bengal and in southwestern Bhutan.
The Kirat or Kirati people are indigenous ethnic groups of the Himalayas.
Yakkha or Dewan is an indigenous ethnic group from the Indian subcontinent, mainly in modern-day Nepal and present-day India. It is one of the descendants of Nepal's prehistoric Kirat dynasty. The Yakkha people are subsistence farmers who inhabit the lower Arun valley in eastern Nepal. They number only a few thousand and their language is nearly extinct.
Ilam district is one of 14 districts of Koshi Province of eastern Nepal. It is a Hill district and covers 1,703 km2 (658 sq mi). The 2011 census counted 290,254 inhabitants. The municipality of Ilam is the district headquarters and is about 600 km (370 mi) from Kathmandu.
Jhapa District is a district of Koshi Province in eastern Nepal named after a Rajbanshi Surjapuri language word "Jhapa", meaning "to cover" (verb). The 2021 Nepal Census, puts the total population of the district at 994,090. The total area of the district is 1,606 square kilometres.
Morang District is located in Koshi Province in eastern Nepal. It is an Outer Terai district, which borders Jhapa to the east, Dhankuta and Panchthar to the north, Sunsari to the west, and Bihar, India, to the south. Morang has one metropolitan city (Biratnagar), eight municipalities and eight rural municipalities. The total area of the district is 1,855 km2 (716 sq mi). The lowest elevation point is 60 meters and the highest is 2,410 meters above sea level. The headquarters of Morang is connected by the Koshi National Highway to the east–west Mahendra National Highway at Itahari, Sunsari. Morang is also connected to the Hill parts of the eastern region of Nepal. Morang is the core industrial sector for the eastern region of Nepal.
Solukhumbu District (Nepali: सोलुखुम्बु जिल्ला, Sherpa: ཤར་ཁུམ་བུ་རྫོང་།, Wylie: shar khum bu dzong) is one of 14 districts of Koshi Province of eastern Nepal. As the name suggests, it consists of the sub-regions Solu and Khumbu. The closest post office to Solukhumbu with a postal code assigned to it is the Sindhuli D.P.O., which has the postal code 56000.
Taplejung District is one of 77 districts of Nepal and one of the 14 districts of Koshi Province. It is located deep in the Himalayas in Eastern Nepal with བོད to the north across the Himalayas. Taplejung is the third largest district of Nepal.
Limbu is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Limbu people of Nepal and Northeastern India as well as expatriate communities in Bhutan. The Limbu refer to themselves as Yakthung and their language as Yakthungpan. Yakthungpan has four main dialects: Phedape, Chhathare, Tambarkhole and Panthare dialects.
Limbuwan is an area of the Himalayan region historically made up of 10 Limbu kingdoms, now part of eastern Nepal. Limbuwan means "abode of the Limbus" or "Land of the Limbus". Limbuwan was incorporated into the Kingdom of Nepal by means of a collective Gorkha-Limbuwan Treaty with the kings of the ten Limbuwan kingdoms and their ministers.
Kirat Mundhum, also known as Kiratism, or Kirati Mundhum, is a traditional belief of the Kirati ethnic groups of Nepal, Darjeeling and Sikkim, majorly practiced by Yakkha, Limbu, Sunuwar, Rai, Thami, Jirel, Hayu and Surel peoples in the north-eastern Indian subcontinent. The practice is also known as Kirat Veda, Kirat-Ko Veda or Kirat Ko Ved. According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is a blend of shamanism, animism, and Shaivism. It is practiced by about 3.17% of the Nepali population as of 2021.
Sikkimese are Indians who inhabit the North-east state of Sikkim. The dominance ethnic diversity of Sikkim is represented by 'Lho-Mon-Tsong-Tsum' that identifies origin of three races since the seventeenth century. The term 'Lho' refers to Bhutias (Lhopo) means south who migrated from Southern Tibet, the term 'Mon' refers to Lepchas (Rong) lived in lower Eastern Himalayas and the term 'Tsong' refers to Limbus, another tribe of Sikkim. The pre-theocratic phase of Sikkim was inhabited by the Kiratis, “Sikkim is also known as the home of the Kirati tribesmen from the pre-historic times. Society in Sikkim is characterised by multiple ethnicity and possesses attributes of a plural society. The present population of Sikkim is composed of different races and ethnic groups, viz., the Lepchas, the Bhutias, the Nepali language speaking Indian Gorkhas and the Plainsmen, who came and settled in different phases of history. The historic 8 May agreement between Chogyal, the Government of India and political parties of Sikkim defines Sikkimese as Sikkimese of Bhutia-Lepcha origin or Sikkimese of Indian Gorkha origin including Tsongs and Schedule castes. The community in Sikkim is inclusive of three sub-cultural sectors: the Kiratis, the Newaris and the Nepali-Indian Gorkhas.
Sakela is one of the main festival of Khambu Rai people, an ethnic group indigenous to Eastern Nepal and Sikkim, Kalimpong, and Darjeeling regions of India. Sakela is celebrated twice a year and is distinguished by two names Ubhauli and Udhauli. Sakela Ubhauli is celebrated during Baisakh Purnima and Sakela Udhauli is celebrated during the full moon day in the month of Mangsir.
History of Limbuwan is characterized by the close interaction of Limbuwan with its neighbours independent and semi-independent rule characterized by autonomy for most of its time.
The Kiranti languages are a major family of Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in Nepal and India by the Kirati people.
Tye-Angsi Sirijanga Thebe Limbu was an 18th-century Limbu scholar, educator, historian, linguist, leader, and philosopher of Limbuwan(Nepal) and Sikkim. He was formally known as Sirichongba and even more popularly known as "Sirijanga".
Udhauli (उधौली) is a festival of the Kirat communities of Kirati people specially celebrated by Sunuwar, Limbu, Yakkha, Khambu Rai etc. of Nepal, India and other different countries around the world where these indigenous people resides. It is celebrated every year marking the migration phase downwards towards the low-elevation regions when the winter season arrives. The migration from the low-elevation areas upwards to hilly areas is called Ubhauli (upwards), which is also an annual festival of these communities On the Udhauli festival day, the Kirat people offer thanks to mother nature for providing a good harvest.
Ubhauli (उभौली) is festival of the Kirat communities of Sunuwar, Rai, Limbu and Yakkha of Nepal, India and around the world by Kirati people celebrated every year marking the migration phase upwards towards the hilly regions when the summer season arrives. The migration from hills downwards to areas of lower altitude is called Udhauli (downwards), which is also an annual festival of these communities. Sakela is the dance performed during the festival. On this Ubhauli festival day, the Kirat people pray to mother nature for healthy crops and protection from natural calamities in that year.
The Kirat Region is an area of the Eastern Himalayas which is inhabited by ethnic Kirati people. in the History of Nepal earliest inhabitants of Nepal are Kiratis of Eastern hills.Kirati states divided into three subdivision "Wallo Kirat” or Near Kirat is from east of Kathmandu Valley to Likhu Khola, "Majh Kirat” or Middle Kirat is east of Likhu River to Arun River and the "Pallo Kirat” Limbuwan or Far Kirat is east of Arun River to Mechi River.
Khuwalung is a rock in the Saptakoshi river of Nepal sacred to the Kirati people. The rock lies at the confluence of Dudh Koshi, Arun, and Tamor rivers, near the Belaka municipality of Udayapur district. It is considered as one of the holiest site of the Kirati people. The name of the rock is uttered in the beginning and ending of every Kirat religious ritual.
↑ P.11 Origins and Migrations: Kinship, Mythology and Ethnic Identity Among the Mewahang Rai of East Nepal, Martin Gaenszle Mandala Book Point, 2000
↑ Cross-Cultural Marriage: Identity and Choice, Rosemary Breger, 1 Jun 1998
↑ Graham Thurgood, Randy J. LaPolla The Sino-Tibetan Languages 2003 Page 505, "The Kiranti people and languages between the rivers Likhu and Arun, including some small groups east of the Arun, are usually referred to as 'Khambu Rai', which is a somewhat vague geographic grouping rather than a genetic grouping. Most Kiranti languages have less than 10,000 speakers and are threatened by extinction. Some are spoken only by elderly people. Practically all Kirati speakers are also fluent in Nepali, the language of literacy and education and the national "
↑ Kamal Prakash Malla (1996) "The Profane Names of the Sacred Hillocks" in Contributions to Nepalese Studies, 23(1), pp. 1-9.
↑ Vajracharya, Dhanavajra and Kamal P. Malla (1985) "The Gopalarajavamsavali: A Facsimile Edition Prepared by the Nepal Research Centre in Collaboration With the National Archives, Kathmandu. With an Introduction, a Transcription, Nepal and English Translations, a Glossary and Indices", Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GMBH, Kathmandu, pp. 26, 122.
↑ Gellner, David N. and Declan Quigley (eds.) (1995) "Contested Hierarchies: A Collaborative Ethnography of Caste among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal", Clarendon Press, Oxford.
↑ Nepali, Gopal Singh (2015) "The Newars (An Ethno-Sociological Study of a Himalayan Community)", Mandala Book Point, Kathmandu.
↑ Ethnic Revival and Religious Turmoil: Identities and Representations in the Himalayas, Marie Lecomte-Tilouine, Pascale Dollfus, Oxford University Press, 2003
↑ Fools and infantrymen: one view of history (1923–1993), E. A. Vas, Kartikeya Publications, 1995
↑ 5th Infantry Brigade in the Falklands 1982, Nicholas Van der Bijl, David Aldea Leo Cooper, 2003
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