Parmelia (fungus)

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Parmelia
Parmelia saxatilis - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Parmelia saxatilis
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Lecanoromycetes
Order: Lecanorales
Family: Parmeliaceae
Genus: Parmelia
Ach. (1803)
Type species
Parmelia saxatilis
(L.) Ach. (1803)
Synonyms [1]

Parmelia is a genus of medium to large foliose (leafy) lichens. [3] : 78  It has a global distribution, extending from the Arctic [4] to the Antarctic continent [5] but concentrated in temperate regions. [6] There are about 40 species in Parmelia. [7] In recent decades, the once large genus Parmelia has been divided into a number of smaller genera according to thallus morphology and phylogenetic relatedness.

Contents

It is a foliaceous lichen, resembling a leaf in shape. The ends of the leaf-like lobes are often squarish-tipped. [3] : 78  The upper surface is pale bluish-gray to light brown in direct sunlight, with a network web-like ridges and depressions.: 78  The lower surface is black and has rhizines anchoring it to the substrate. [3] : 78  In general, Parmelia have a dark lower side with rhizines ('rootlets') that attach the lichen to its substrate. The upper side may be several colours - grey, yellow, brown - and may have reproductive organs on it. These may be apothecia (ascospore-producing bodies), isidia or soralia (both vegetative structures). In between these two layers is the medulla, which contains the algal component of the lichen.

Taxonomy

Parmelia was circumscribed by Swedish lichenologist Erik Acharius in 1803. [8] His idea of the genus, which included foliose species with lecanorine apothecia, was quite broad and included species that are now dispersed in many different genera and families, such as the Peltigeraceae ( Lobaria ), the Pannariaceae ( Pannaria , Parmeliella ), the Physciaceae ( Physcia , Heterodermia , Physconia ), the Teloschistaceae ( Xanthoria ), as well as the Parmeliaceae ( Cetraria , Hypogymnia , and Parmeliopsis ). Its broad circumscription meant that almost every lichen with a thalline apothecial rim was included by 19th-century authors. [9]

In an attempt to create more homogeneous groups of taxa, lichenologists created new segregate genera for species once in Parmelia. These included Menegazzia (1854), Parmotrema (1860), Anzia (1861), Parmeliopsis (1869), Hypogymnia (1896), Pseudevernia (1903), Pannoparmelia (1912), and Pseudoparmelia (1914). [9] In the 1970s and 1980s, electron microscopy was used to help divide several Parmelia species groups into different genera based on the structure of their cortex. These include Arctoparmelia , [10] Bulbothrix , Canoparmelia , Cetrariastrum , Concamerella , Everniastrum , Flavoparmelia , Hypotrachyna , Neofuscelia , Paraparmelia , Parmelina , Parmotrema , Pseudoparmelia , Relicina , Relicinopsis , Xanthomaculina , and Xanthoparmelia . Another group of species was segregated on the basis of the presence of pseudocyphellae: Punctelia , Flavopunctelia , and Melanelia . In Mason Hale's 1987 monograph on Parmelia, he commented: "The group has been further subdivided ... now leaving in Parmelia a small, apparently irreducible assemblage of species typified by P. saxatilis". [9] In 2016, however, sixteen mostly Australasian species were moved to the new genus Notoparmelia ; these species had been shown by molecular phylogenetic analysis to form a monophyletic lineage in Parmelia. [11]

Fossil record

There are two foliose fossil taxa, Parmelia ambra and P. isidiiveteris , that have been placed provisionally in genus Parmelia due to their overall resemblance to members of this genus. [12] Later authors have suggested, however, that this generic placement is not appropriate for the current concept of Parmelia, and that because of the dearth of specimens available for analysis, it is impossible to know for certain which of the many foliose genera in the family Parmeliaceae is best suited for these fossils. [13] [14]

Description

Parmelia species have a foliose (leafy) thallus with a substrate attachment ranging from loose to tight. The lobes comprising the thallus are rounded, more or less straight, and may be contiguous or overlapping (imbricate). The texture of the upper thallus ranges from smooth to foveolate (covered with puts and depressions). The colour is typically green to whitish grey to greyish brown, and some species have a coating of pruina on the surface. Most species have pseudocyphellae (tiny pores that allow for gas exchange), and vegetative propagules such as isidia or soredia, or both. The lower surface of the thallus is black (or close to it), and has rhizines (either simple or branched) that function as holdfasts to attach it to its substrate. The cortex (botany) is paraplectenchymatous – a cell arrangement where the hyphae are oriented in all directions. [15]

The ascomata of Parmelia species are in the form of apothecia, which have a zeorine structure (an apothecium in which a proper exciple is enclosed in the thalline exciple) and are laminal (superficial on the surface) to somewhat stipitate. The exposed upper surface of the hymenium, the disc, is brown, rarely blackish. The asci are eight-spored, while the spores are colorless, ellipsoid, and measure 10–18 by 5–13  μm. The conidiomata are in the form of pycnidia; these black spots are laminal and immersed in the thallus surface. They produce dumbbell-shaped conidia with dimensions of 5.5–8 μm. The photobiont partners of Parmelia are green algae from the genera Asterochloris or Trebouxia . [15]

Photobionts

Recent research has revealed insights into the ecological relationships between Parmelia lichens and their algal partners ( photobionts ). While earlier studies suggested that Parmelia species were highly selective in their choice of photobionts, a 2024 study revealed a more nuanced picture. By examining the genetic diversity of both fungi and algae at the species and haplotype (genetic variant) levels, the researchers found that some widespread Parmelia species, such as P. saxatilis and P. sulcata, exhibit more flexibility in their photobiont associations than previously thought. This adaptability may help explain these species' broad geographic distributions. The study also found that the mode of reproduction (whether through soredia or isidia, two types of vegetative propagules) did not significantly affect the specificity of fungal-algal partnerships. [16]

Ecology

Parmelia lichens are food for the caterpillars of certain Lepidoptera, such as the bagworm moth Taleporia tubulosa . [17]

Conservation

Two species of Parmelia have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature for the global IUCN Red List. Both Parmelia saxatilis and P. sulcata are considered species of least concern due to their widespread distribution, abundance, and stable populations. [18] [19]

Distribution

Eleven Parmelia species were recorded for Europe in 2008. [20] Nine occur in the Nordic lichen flora, of which P. saxatilis and P. sulcata are most common and widespread. [15]

Species

Parmelia hygrophila Parmelia hygrophila - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Parmelia hygrophila
Parmelia omphalodes Parmelia omphalodes - Flickr - pellaea.jpg
Parmelia omphalodes
Parmelia sulcata Parmelia sulcata - Lindsey.jpg
Parmelia sulcata

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parmeliaceae</span> Family of lichens

The Parmeliaceae is a large and diverse family of Lecanoromycetes. With over 2700 species in 71 genera, it is the largest family of lichen-forming fungi. The most speciose genera in the family are the well-known groups: Xanthoparmelia, Usnea, Parmotrema, and Hypotrachyna.

<i>Parmelia sulcata</i> Species of lichen

Parmelia sulcata, commonly known as the hammered shield lichen or cracked-shield lichen, is a foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. First described by Thomas Taylor in 1836, it is one of the most prevalent lichen species globally, known for its resilience to pollution and cosmopolitan distribution across temperate and cold regions of both hemispheres. P. sulcata forms a circular thallus up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter, with a glaucous white to grey upper surface and a black lower surface, featuring broadly lobed structures with both marginal and laminal soralia and a distinctive reticulate pattern of pseudocyphellae.

<i>Hypogymnia</i> Genus of lichens

Hypogymnia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. They are commonly known as tube lichens, bone lichens, or pillow lichens. Most species lack rhizines that are otherwise common in members of the Parmeliaceae, and have swollen lobes that are usually hollow. Other common characteristics are relatively small spores and the presence of physodic acid and related lichen products. The lichens usually grow on the bark and wood of coniferous trees.

<i>Melanohalea</i> Genus of lichen

Melanohalea is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It contains 30 mostly Northern Hemisphere species that grow on bark or on wood. The genus is characterised by the presence of pseudocyphellae, usually on warts or on the tips of isidia, a non-pored epicortex and a medulla containing depsidones or lacking secondary metabolites. Melanohalea was circumscribed in 2004 as a segregate of the morphologically similar genus Melanelia, which was created in 1978 for certain brown Parmelia species. The methods used to estimate the evolutionary history of Melanohalea suggest that its diversification primarily occurred during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.

<i>Melanelixia</i> Genus of fungi

Melanelixia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It contains 15 Northern Hemisphere species that grow on bark or on wood. The genus is characterized by a pored or fenestrate epicortex, and the production of lecanoric acid as the primary chemical constituent of the medulla. Melanelixia was circumscribed in 2004 as a segregate of the related genus Melanelia.

<i>Flavoparmelia</i> Genus of fungi

Flavoparmelia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. Because of their appearance, they are commonly known as greenshield lichens. The widely distributed genus contains 32 species. It was circumscribed by American lichenologist Mason Hale in 1986 to contain 17 former Pseudoparmelia species with broad lobes, usnic acid in the cortex, and isolichenan in the cell walls.

<i>Parmotrema</i> Genus of fungi

Parmotrema is a genus of lichen belonging to the family Parmeliaceae. It is a large genus, containing an estimated 300 species, with a centre of diversity in subtropical regions of South America and the Pacific Islands.

<i>Punctelia</i> Genus of foliose lichens

Punctelia is a genus of foliose lichens belonging to the large family Parmeliaceae. The genus, which contains about 50 species, was segregated from genus Parmelia in 1982. Characteristics that define Punctelia include the presence of hook-like to thread-like conidia, simple rhizines, and point-like pseudocyphellae. It is this last feature that is alluded to in the vernacular names speckled shield lichens or speckleback lichens.

<i>Xanthoparmelia</i> Genus of fungi

Xanthoparmelia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. This genus of lichen is commonly found in the United States, South America, southern Africa, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand.

<i>Parmelia saxatilis</i> Species of fungus

Parmelia saxatilis, commonly known as the salted shield lichen or crottle, is a species of foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. Several morphologically similar species, formerly lumped together, are now distinguished by their DNA.

<i>Crespoa</i> Genus of fungi

Crespoa is a genus of five species of lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. Species in this genus are characterized by having an upper thallus surface that is wrinkled and reticulately ridged to coarsely foveolate.

Nipponoparmelia is a genus of five species of lichen belonging to the family Parmeliaceae. Nipponoparmelia was originally conceived by Syo Kurokawa as a subgenus of the genus Parmelia in 1994. It was raised to generic status in 2010. Four east Asian species were originally placed in the genus; Nipponoparmelia perplicata, found in South Korea and Russia, was added in 2014.

Emodomelanelia is a lichen genus in the family Parmeliaceae. It is monotypic, containing the single foliose Himalayan species Emodomelanelia masonii.

<i>Notoparmelia</i> Genus of lichens

Notoparmelia is a genus of foliose lichens in the family Parmeliaceae. It includes 18 species that grow on bark and rocks, and are mostly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The genus was created in 2014 as a segregate of Parmelia.

Parmelia mayi is a species of foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It is found in the northern Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America, where it grows on rocks and on the trunks of paper birch and balsam fir. Parmelia mayi is morphologically indistinguishable from Parmelia saxatilis, but is distinct in its distribution, chemistry, and genetics.

<i>Parmelia barrenoae</i> Species of lichen

Parmelia barrenoae is a species of foliose lichen in the large family Parmeliaceae. It was formally described as a new species in 2005. Before this, it was lumped together as one of several lichens in the Parmelia sulcata group—a species complex of genetically distinct lookalikes. Parmelia barrenoae is widely distributed, occurring in Europe, western North America, Africa, and Asia.

<i>Parmelia fraudans</i> Species of lichen

Parmelia fraudans is a species of foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It is found in Europe and North America, where it grows on rocks.

Parmelia imbricaria is a species of foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. Found in western Canada, it was formally described as a new species in 2017 by Trevor Goward, Pradeep Kumar Divakar, María del Carmen Molina, and Ana Crespo. The type specimen was collected by Goward near the Clearwater River drainage, where it was found at an altitude of 700 m (2,300 ft) growing on a basalt boulder. The specific epithet refers to the "imbricate" lobes of the thallus. The lichen occurs in western Canada, with a range including southern Yukon and extending south to southern inland British Columbia. The European Parmelia pinatifida is a closely related species.

Parmelia encryptata is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling), foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. Found in the Iberian Peninsula, it was formally described as a new species in 2011 by Ana Crespo, Pradeep Kumar Divakar, and Maria del Carmen Molina. It is cryptic species that is a member of the Parmelia sulcata species complex, and it is morphologically indistinguishable from that lichen. Molecular phylogenetic analysis, however, shows that it is a genetically unique species originating from a different lineage. Parmelia encryptata has been estimated to have diverged from the P. squarrosa complex about 5.4 million years ago.

<i>Melanohalea exasperatula</i> Species of lichen

Melanohalea exasperatula, commonly known as the lustrous camouflage lichen or lustrous brown-shield, is a species of corticolous (bark-dwelling) foliose lichen in the family Parmeliaceae. It has a widespread global distribution and is common in both Europe and northern North America. Its thallus can grow up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, with marginal lobes up to 5 mm broad. The upper surface is pale olive-green to red-brown, with isidia that are unbranched, inflated, and hollow. It can be distinguished from similar species by the shape and structure of these isidia. The lower surface of the thallus is pale tan to pale brown with scattered, pale rhizines. Apothecia are uncommon, while pycnidia and secondary metabolites have not been observed in this species. The lack of defensive chemicals makes it vulnerable to grazing by slugs and snails. The evolutionary history of Melanohalea exasperatula is linked to major climatic events during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.

References

  1. ↑ "Synonymy. Current Name: Parmelia Ach., Methodus, Sectio post. (Stockholmiæ): xxxiii, 153 (1803)". Species Fungorum . Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  2. ↑ Massalongo, A.B. (1860). "Esame comparativo di alcune genere di licheni" [Comparative examination of some lichen genera]. Atti dell'Istituto Veneto Scienze. 5: 247–276.
  3. 1 2 3 Field Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 2014, ISBN   978-0-300-19500-2
  4. ↑ Skult H (1985) A New Subspecies of Parmelia omphalodes Ascomycetes Described from the Arctic. Annales Botanici Fennici 22, 201-6.
  5. ↑ D.C. Lindsay (1973) Notes on Antarctic lichens: IV. The genera Cetraria Hoffm., Hypogymnia (Nyl.) Nyl., Menegazzia Massal, Parmelia Ach. and Platismatia Culb. et Culb. British Antarctic Survey Bulletin 36, 105-114.
  6. ↑ Bisby, Guy Richard; Ainsworth, G. C.; Kirk, P. M.; Aptroot, André (2001). Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the fungi / by P. M. Kirk... [et al.]; with the assistance of A. Aptroot... [et al.] Oxon: CAB International. p. 378. ISBN   978-0-85199-377-5.
  7. ↑ Ossowska, Emilia; Guzow-Krzemińska, Beata; Kolanowska, Marta; Szczepańska, Katarzyna; Kukwa, Martin (2019). "Morphology and secondary chemistry in species recognition of Parmelia omphalodes group – evidence from molecular data with notes on the ecological niche modelling and genetic variability of photobionts". MycoKeys. 61: 39–74. doi: 10.3897/mycokeys.61.38175 . PMC   6920222 . PMID   31866741.
  8. ↑ Acharius, E. (1803). Methodus qua Omnes Detectos Lichenes Secundum Organa Carpomorpha ad Genera, Species et Varietates Redigere atque Observationibus Illustrare Tentavit Erik Acharius (in Latin). Stockholm: Impensis F.D.D. Ulrich. p. 153.
  9. 1 2 3 Hale 1987, p. 1.
  10. ↑ Hale, M.E. (1986). "Arctoparmelia, a new lichen genus in the Parmeliaceae". Mycotaxon. 25 (1): 251–254.
  11. ↑ Ferencova, Zuzana; Cubas, Paloma; Divakar, Pradeep Kumar; Molina, M. Carmen; Crespo, Ana (2014). "Notoparmelia, a new genus of Parmeliaceae (Ascomycota) based on overlooked reproductive anatomical features, phylogeny and distribution pattern". The Lichenologist. 46 (1): 51–67. doi:10.1017/S0024282913000649.
  12. 1 2 3 Poinar, G. O.; Peterson, E. B.; Platt, J. L. (2000). "Fossil Parmelia in new world amber". The Lichenologist. 32 (3): 263–269. doi:10.1006/lich.1999.0258.
  13. ↑ Beimforde, Christina; Feldberg, Kathrin; Nylinder, Stephan; Rikkinen, Jouko; Tuovila, Hanna; Dörfelt, Heinrich; Gube, Matthias; Jackson, Daniel J.; Reitner, Joachim; Seyfullah, Leyla J.; Schmidt, Alexander R. (2014). "Estimating the Phanerozoic history of the Ascomycota lineages: Combining fossil and molecular data". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 78: 386–398. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.04.024 . PMID   24792086.
  14. ↑ Kaasalainen, Ulla; Heinrichs, Jochen; Krings, Michael; Myllys, Leena; Grabenhorst, Heinrich; Rikkinen, Jouko; Schmidt, Alexander R. (2015). Wilf, Peter (ed.). "Alectorioid morphologies in Paleogene lichens: new evidence and re-evaluation of the fossil Alectoria succini Mägdefrau". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0129526. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1029526K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129526 . PMC   4460037 . PMID   26053106.
  15. 1 2 3 Thell, A.; Thor, G.; Ahti, T. (2011). "Parmelia". In Thell, Arne; Moberg, Roland (eds.). Nordic Lichen Flora. Vol. 4. Svenska Botaniska Föreningen. pp. 83–89. ISBN   978-91-85221-24-0.
  16. ↑ Ossowska, Emilia Anna; Guzow-Krzemińska, Beata; Kukwa, Martin; Malíček, Jiří; Schiefelbein, Ulf; Thell, Arne; Kosecka, Magdalena (2024-08-24). "The application of haplotypes instead of species-level ranks modifies the interpretation of ecological preferences in lichen symbiont interactions in Parmelia". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 19682. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-70667-1 .
  17. ↑ Yusuf, Mohd (2020). "A review on trends and opportuny in edible lichens". In Yusuf, Mohd (ed.). Lichen-Derived Products: Extraction and Applications. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN   978-1-119-59171-9. OCLC   1182019542.
  18. ↑ Yahr, R.; Allen, J.; Lymbery, C.; Batallas-Molina, R.; Bungartz, F.; Dal Forno, M.; Howe, N.; Lendemer, J.; McMullin, T.; Mertens, A.; Paquette, H.; Petix, M.; Reese Næsborg, R.; Roberts, F.; Sharrett, S.; Villella, J. (18 May 2021). "Parmelia saxatilis". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021. 18 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  19. ↑ Yahr, R.; Allen, J.; Lymbery, C.; Batallas-Molina, R.; Dal Forno, M.; Howe, N.; Lendemer, J.; McMullin, T.; Mertens, A.; Petix, M.; Reese Næsborg, R.; Roberts, F.; Sharrett, S.; Villella, J. (25 May 2021). "Bottle Brush Shield Lichen". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 25 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  20. ↑ Hawksworth, David L.; Blanco, Oscar; Divakar, Pradeep K.; Ahti, Teuvo; Crespo, Ana (2008). "A first checklist of parmelioid and similar lichens in Europe and some adjacent territories, adopting revised generic circumscriptions and with indications of species distributions". The Lichenologist. 40 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1017/S0024282908007329.
  21. 1 2 Nylander, W. (1890). Lichenes Japoniae. Accedunt Observationibus Lichenes Insulae Labuan (in Latin). p. 28.
  22. ↑ Lumbsch, H.T.; Ahti, T.; Altermann, S.; De Paz, G.A.; Aptroot, A.; Arup, U.; et al. (2011). "One hundred new species of lichenized fungi: a signature of undiscovered global diversity". Phytotaxa. 18 (1): 1–127. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.18.1.1 . hdl: 11336/4198 .
  23. ↑ Divakar, Pradeep K.; Molina, M. Carmen; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Crespo, Ana (2005). "Parmelia barrenoae, a new lichen species related to Parmelia sulcata (Parmeliaceae) based on molecular and morphological data". The Lichenologist. 37 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1017/S0024282904014641.
  24. ↑ Brenner, M. (1886). "Bidrag till kännedom af Finska vikens övegetation. IV. Hoglands lafvar". Meddelanden af Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica (in Latin). 13: 40.
  25. ↑ Molina, Maria del Carmen; Divakar, Pradeep K.; Millanes, Ana M.; Sánchez, Edinson; Del-Prado, Ruth; Hawksworth, David L.; Crespo, Ana (2011). "Parmelia sulcata (Ascomycota: Parmeliaceae), a sympatric monophyletic species complex". The Lichenologist. 43 (6): 585–601. doi:10.1017/S0024282911000521.
  26. ↑ Feuerer, T.; Thell, A. (2002). "Parmelia ernstiae Feuerer & Thell – a new macrolichen from Germany". Mitteilungen aus dem Institut für Allgemeine Botanik Hamburg (in German). 30–32: 49–60.
  27. ↑ Müller, J. (1887). "Lichenologische Beiträge XXVI". Flora (Regensburg) (in German). 70 (20): 316–322.
  28. ↑ Goward, T.; Ahti, T. (1983). "Parmelia hygrophila, a new lichen species from the Pacific Northwest of North America". Annales Botanici Fennici. 20 (1): 9–13.
  29. ↑ Divakar, Pradeep K.; Upreti, D.K.; Sinha, G.P.; Elix, John A. (2003). "New species and records in the lichen family Parmeliaceae (Ascomycota) from India". Mycotaxon. 88: 149–154.
  30. 1 2 Molina, M. Carmen; Divakar, Pradeep K.; Goward, Trevor; Millanes, Ana M.; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Crespo, Ana (2016). "Neogene diversification in the temperate lichen-forming fungal genus Parmelia (Parmeliaceae, Ascomycota)". Systematics and Biodiversity. 15 (2): 166–181. doi:10.1080/14772000.2016.1226977.
  31. ↑ Øvstedal, D.O.; Lewis Smith, R.I. (2009). "Further additions to the lichen flora of Antarctica and South Georgia". Nova Hedwigia. 88 (1–2): 157–168. doi:10.1127/0029-5035/2009/0088-0157.
  32. ↑ Molina, M. Carmen; Del-Prado, Ruth; Divakar, Pradeep Kumar; Sánchez-Mata, Daniel; Crespo, Ana (2011). "Another example of cryptic diversity in lichen-forming fungi: the new species Parmelia mayi (Ascomycota: Parmeliaceae)". Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 11 (5): 331–342. doi:10.1007/s13127-011-0060-4.
  33. ↑ Hue, A.M. (1889). "Lichenes Yunnanenses a cl. Delavay praesertim annis 1886-1887, collectos, exponit A. M. Hue (1)". Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France (in Latin). 36: 164.
  34. ↑ Nylander, W. (1885). "Parmeliae exoticae novae". Flora (Regensburg) (in Latin). 68: 605–615.
  35. ↑ Hale 1987, p. 30.
  36. ↑ Kurokawa, S. (1976). "A note on Parmelia omphalodes and its related species" (PDF). The Journal of Japanese Botany. 51 (12): 377–380.
  37. ↑ Elix, John A.; Johnston, Jen (1988). "New species in the lichen family Parmeliaceae (Ascomycotina) from the southern hemisphere". Mycotaxon. 31 (2): 491–510.
  38. ↑ Crespo, Ana; Rico, Víctor J.; Garrido, Elisa; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Divakar, Pradeep K. (2020). "A revision of species of the Parmelia saxatilis complex in the Iberian Peninsula with the description of P. rojoi, a new potentially relict species". The Lichenologist. 52 (5): 365–376. doi:10.1017/S0024282920000341.
  39. ↑ Molina, María del Carmen; Crespo, Ana; Blanco, Oscar; Lumbsch, H. Thorsten; Hawksworth, David L. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships and species concepts in Parmelia s. str. (Parmeliaceae) inferred from nuclear ITS rDNA and β-tubulin sequences". The Lichenologist. 36 (1): 37–54. doi:10.1017/S0024282904013933.
  40. ↑ Hale 1987, p. 43.
  41. ↑ Hale, M.E. (1971). "Parmelia squarrosa, a new species in section Parmelia". Phytologia. 22 (1): 29.
  42. ↑ Mackay, J.T. (1836). Flora Hibernica. Vol. 2. Dublin: William Curry Junior & Company. p. 145.

Cited literature

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