Plum pox

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Plum pox virus
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Genome of PPV with electron micrograph and model of virions
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Pisuviricota
Class: Stelpaviricetes
Order: Patatavirales
Family: Potyviridae
Genus: Potyvirus
Species:
Plum pox virus

Plum pox, also known as sharka, is the most devastating viral disease of stone fruit from the genus Prunus . The disease is caused by the plum pox virus (PPV), and the different strains may infect a variety of stone fruit species including peaches, apricots, plums, nectarine, almonds, and sweet and tart cherries. Wild and ornamental species of Prunus may also become infected by some strains of the virus.

Contents

The virus is transmitted by aphids and by the transfer of infected plant material to new locations. Plum pox poses no danger to consumers, but it can ruin the marketability of stone fruit by causing acidity and deformities. The only way to manage the disease is to destroy all infected trees, which can cause significant economic losses.

Historical background

The disease symptoms were first seen in Bulgaria around 1916–1917. Thus, the name of sharka – from Bulgarian шарка, meaning pox. In 1933, the virus origin was described by Dimitar Atanasov. The disease developed and spread in several European countries, and may have largely wiped out the ancient landrace variously called Pozegaca, Quetsche, or German prune.

Biology

The plum pox virus is a linear single-stranded RNA virus. [1] There are nine strains of plum pox virus: PPV-D, PPV-M, PPV-EA, PPV-C, PPV-Rec (Recombinant), PPV-W, PPV-T, PPV-CR, and PPV-An. PPV-T (Turkey) was detected first and so far only in Turkey, although its isolates are capable to naturally infect most of important Prunus spp. [2] PPV-C infects sweet and tart cherry naturally and is the only strain known to do so, it has infected other Prunus hosts experimentally.

PPV-M isolates are more aggressive in peach, are aphid vectored more efficiently, and spread more rapidly in an orchard. [3] PPV-M has been reported to be seed transmitted, the other PPV strains are known not be transmitted through seeds. Both PPV strains M and D infest peach, plum, and apricot. PPV-M was previously divided into two variants: Ma and Mb with distribution in European Mediterranean and central-eastern European countries, respectively, [4] but another variant was recently detected in Istanbul, Turkey, and appropriately named MIs. [5] [6] Two MIs isolates were also detected in Bolu province, which is very close to Istanbul, and the isolates cross reacted with a mixture of polyclonal antibodies and monoclonal 5B-IVIA purchased commercially as ELISA kit for universal identification of PPV strains. [7] Genetic analysis also confirmed the very high identity of Ma, Mb, and MIs variants at 836 bp P3-6K1-CI region. [7]

Pathology

The aphid Myzus persicae is a vector for plum pox virus in the United States. Myzus persicae.jpg
The aphid Myzus persicae is a vector for plum pox virus in the United States.

Several species of aphid transmit the virus including the plum-thistle aphid (Brachycaudus cardui), [8] the plum leaf curl aphid (Brachycaudus helichrysi) and the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae). [9] Winged aphids can transmit plum pox within an orchard, and over short distances (200–300 meters) to trees in nearby orchards. Unlike some other viruses, like barley yellow dwarf virus, PPV is not persistent in the aphid and is transferred from the mouthparts of the aphid between plants. Long distance spread usually occurs as a result of the movement of infected nursery stock or propagative materials. Once a plant is infected the virus is systemic and occurs in the cytoplasm of cells from all parts of the plant.

When a host tree is infected by plum pox, the infection eventually results in severely reduced fruit production, and the fruit that is produced is often misshapen and blemished. The presence of plum pox can also enhance the effects of other endemic viruses infecting various species of the genus Prunus, such as prune dwarf virus, Prunus necrotic (browning) ringspot virus, and apple chlorotic (yellowing) leaf spot virus, resulting in still greater economic losses.

Plum pox infection in an apricot. There are rings on the leaves and the fruit and seed are discoloured. Plum pox in apricot.jpg
Plum pox infection in an apricot. There are rings on the leaves and the fruit and seed are discoloured.

In peach, infected trees may exhibit color-breaking symptoms in the blossoms. This appears as darker pink stripes on the flower petals and can be useful for early season surveys. Symptoms can be present in young leaves in the spring and/or on developing fruit. Some trees show no symptoms on leaves or fruit.

Not all infection in Prunus are characterized by a ring symptom on leaves. Several cultivars show yellowing line patterns and blotches, or necrotic ring symptoms on expanded leaves. Leaf distortion has also been observed. Infected fruit can develop yellow rings or blotches, or brown rings, and some plum and apricot fruit can be severely deformed and bumpy. The seed of many infected apricots and some plums show rings.

Many non-Prunus species, in at least nine plant families, have been infected artificially with one or more strains of the plum pox virus, and in some cases found naturally infected in the field. The maintenance of the virus in non-Prunus species complicates disease management.

Management

C5 genetically modified plum pox resistant plum (Prunus domestica). C5 plum pox resistant plum.jpg
C5 genetically modified plum pox resistant plum (Prunus domestica).

No cure or treatment is known for the disease once a tree becomes infected. Infected trees must be destroyed. Once the disease becomes established, control and prevention measures for plum pox include field surveys, use of certified nursery materials, control of aphids, and elimination of infected trees in nurseries and orchards.

Papaïx et al 2014 introduces the ddal model software. ddal is an epidemiological model for sharka providing simulation of dispersal and optimization of control strategies for either epidemiological or economic threshold goals. [10]

Sources of resistance exist in Prunus, but are not common. A team of scientists from the United States and France has genetically engineered a plum pox-resistant plum called C5, [11] and the resistance can be transferred through hybridization to other plum trees. The transgenic plum expresses a plum pox virus coat protein, the plant produces the coat protein mRNA and it is processed by a system called post transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), which functions like the plants' immune system and is mechanistically similar to RNAi. [12] C5 provides a unique source of germplasm for future breeding programs worldwide. Similar success has not yet occurred in attempt to genetically modify other Prunus species, although these efforts are ongoing.

Distribution

Disease StatusCountry
Restricted Distribution Albania, Austria, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Moldova, Norway, Portugal, Southern Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Syria, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States
Widespread Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia
Introduced, Established Azores, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Egypt, Former USSR including Central Asia, India, Lithuania
Introduced, Presumably Eradicated Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland
Present Status Unknown Chile, Denmark
Modified from: Levy et al. 2000. Plum Pox Potyvirus Disease of Stone Fruits. American Phytopathological Society [13]

In the fall of 1999, plum pox strain PPV-D was detected in an Adams County, Pennsylvania orchard. This was the first time that plum pox had been found in North America. The infected areas in Pennsylvania were quarantined to prevent the spread of the disease, and infected trees were destroyed. [3]

Since this time, as a result of random surveying done in 2000, detection has also occurred in Nova Scotia and in Southern Ontario, particularly in the Niagara Region. Like the United States infection, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency has put into effect quarantine zones throughout Southern Ontario in a bid to prevent the spread of PPV. The virus has yet to be found in other areas of Canada which contain susceptible trees despite intense surveying. The Canadian plum pox eradication initiative has involved large numbers of samples tested for the plum pox virus. Samples are tested through a technology known as enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The University of Guelph – Laboratory Services Division has performed over 4,000,000 tests in the past seven years in support of this initiative.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Apricot</span> Cultivated fruit

An apricot is a fruit, or the tree that bears the fruit, of several species in the genus Prunus.

<i>Prunus</i> Genus of trees and shrubs

Prunus is a genus of trees and shrubs, which includes the fruits plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, and almonds.

<i>Potato leafroll virus</i> Species of virus

Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) is a member of the genus Polerovirus and family Solemoviridae. The phloem limited positive sense RNA virus infects potatoes and other members of the family Solanaceae. PLRV was first described by Quanjer et al. in 1916. PLRV is transmitted by aphids, primarily the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. PLRV is one of the most important potato viruses worldwide but particularly devastating in countries with limited resources and management. It can be responsible for individual plant yield losses of over 50%. One estimate suggests that PLRV is responsible for an annual global yield loss of 20 million tons. Symptoms include chlorosis, necrosis and leaf curling.

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a viral species of the genus Closterovirus that causes the most economically damaging disease to its namesake plant genus, Citrus. The disease has led to the death of millions of Citrus trees all over the world and has rendered millions of others useless for production. Farmers in Brazil and other South American countries gave it the name "tristeza", meaning sadness in Portuguese and Spanish, referring to the devastation produced by the disease in the 1930s. The virus is transmitted most efficiently by the brown citrus aphid.

<i>Papaya ringspot virus</i> Species of virus

Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is a pathogenic plant virus in the genus Potyvirus and the virus family Potyviridae which primarily infects the papaya tree.

<i>Taphrina deformans</i> Species of fungus

Taphrina deformans is a fungus and plant pathogen, and a causal agent[s] of peach leaf curl. Peach trees infected with T. deformans will experience leaf puckering and distortion, acquiring a characteristic downward and inward curl. Leaves will also undergo chlorosis, turning a pale green or yellow, and later show a red or purple tint. Fruit can either drop prematurely or show surface distortions. Severe infection can also produce lesions on the flowers. The host tree will experience defoliation if the leaves are badly diseased. If a seedling is severely infected, it may die. Almond trees display similar symptoms.

<i>Apple mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Apple mosaic virus (ApMV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Bromoviridae. It is named after its symptoms that were first present on apples. ApMV is a positive sense RNA based virus. The disease itself has several synonyms including Mild Apple Mosaic Virus, Hop Virus, Rose Mosaic Virus, and European Plum Line Patten Virus. It causes a severe yield reduction and decreased life-expectancy of fruit trees.

Cherry mottle leaf virus (CMLV) is a plant pathogenic virus causing leaf rot. It is closely related to the peach mosaic virus.

<i>Cucumber mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is a plant pathogenic virus in the family Bromoviridae. This virus has a worldwide distribution and a very wide host range, having the reputation of the widest host range of any known plant virus. It can be transmitted from plant to plant both mechanically by sap and by aphids in a stylet-borne fashion. It can also be transmitted in seeds and by the parasitic weeds, Cuscuta sp. (dodder).

Prune dwarf virus (PDV) is an economically important plant pathogenic virus affecting Prunus species globally. PDV is found worldwide due to easy transmission through seed, pollen, and vegetative propagation. The virus is in the family Bromoviridae an important family of plant RNA viruses containing six genera, including Alfamovirus, Ilarvirus, Bromovirus, Amularvirus, Oleavirus, and Cucumovirus. PDV belongs to the genera Ilarvirus. It can cause dwarfism of leaves on certain prune and plum plants. It will also cause yellows in sour cherry, especially when present with Prunus necrotic ringspot virus. There are no known transmission vectors, though the pollen of infected cherry trees has been found to infect other cherry trees a small percent of the time.

<i>Prunus necrotic ringspot virus</i> Species of virus

Prunus necrotic ringspot virus (PNRSV) is a plant pathogenic virus causing ring spot diseases affecting species of the genus Prunus, as well as other species such as rose and hops. PNRSV is found worldwide due to easy transmission through plant propagation methods and infected seed. The virus is in the family Bromoviridae and genus Ilarvirus. Synonyms of PNRSV include European plum line pattern virus, hop B virus, hop C virus, plum line pattern virus, sour cherry necrotic ringspot virus, and peach ringspot virus.

<i>Dibotryon morbosum</i> Species of fungus

Dibotryon morbosum or Apiosporina morbosa is a plant pathogen, which is the causal agent of black knot. It affects members of the Prunus genus such as; cherry, plum, apricot, and chokecherry trees in North America. The disease produces rough, black growths that encircle and kill the infested parts, and provide habitat for insects.

<i>Myzus persicae</i> Aphid of peach, potato, other crops

Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid, greenfly, or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid belonging to the order Hemiptera. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shrivelling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It also acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses such as cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), potato virus Y (PVY) and tobacco etch virus (TEV). Potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus can be passed to members of the nightshade/potato family (Solanaceae), and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops.

The hop stunt viroid is a viroid species that infects the common hop plant, citrus plants, grapevines, cucumber, and several Prunus species such as almond, apricot, plum, and peach. It is asymptomatic or latent in most host plants, but in some hosts it can cause stunting and other symphtoms. A study of HSVd-infected hops in the USA showed that the severity of yield reduction was highly dependent on the infected hop cultivar.

Leucostoma canker is a fungal disease that can kill stone fruit. The disease is caused by the plant pathogens Leucostoma persoonii and Leucostoma cinctum (teleomorph) and Cytospora leucostoma and Cytospora cincta (anamorphs). The disease can have a variety of signs and symptoms depending on the part of the tree infected. One of the most lethal symptoms of the disease are the Leucostoma cankers. The severity of the Leucostoma cankers is dependent on the part of the plant infected. The fungus infects through injured, dying or dead tissues of the trees. Disease management can consist of cultural management practices such as pruning, late season fertilizers or chemical management through measures such as insect control. Leucostoma canker of stone fruit can cause significant economic losses due to reduced fruit production or disease management practices. It is one of the most important diseases of stone fruit tree all over the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cherry X Disease</span>

Cherry X disease also known as Cherry Buckskin disease is caused by a plant pathogenic phytoplasma. Phytoplasmas are obligate parasites of plants and insects. They are specialized bacteria, characterized by their lack of a cell wall, often transmitted through insects, and are responsible for large losses in crops, fruit trees, and ornamentals. The phytoplasma causing Cherry X disease has a fairly limited host range mostly of stone fruit trees. Hosts of the pathogen include sweet cherry, sour cherry, choke cherry, peaches, nectarines, almonds, clover, and dandelion. Most commonly the pathogen is introduced into economical fruit orchards from wild choke cherry and herbaceous weed hosts. The pathogen is vectored by mountain and cherry leafhoppers. The mountain leafhopper vectors the pathogen from wild hosts to cherry orchards but does not feed on the other hosts. The cherry leafhopper feeds on cherry trees and can transmit the disease from cherry orchards to peach, nectarine, and other economic crops. The Saddled Leafhopper is a vector of the disease in peaches. Control of Cherry X disease is limited to controlling the spread, vectors, and weed hosts of the pathogen. Once the pathogen has infected a tree it is fatal and removal is necessary to stop it from becoming a reservoir for vectors.

Little cherry disease or LChD, sometimes referred to as little cherry, K & S little cherry or sour cherry decline, is a viral infectious disease that affects cherry trees, most notably sweet cherries and sour cherries . Little cherry disease should not be confused with cherry buckskin disease, which is caused by Phytoplasma. Note that both diseases are among the diseases referred to as cherry decline.

<i>Brachycaudus cardui</i> Species of insect (aphid)

Brachycaudus cardui is a species of aphid, commonly known as the thistle aphid or the plum-thistle aphid. It infests trees in the genus Prunus in the spring and autumn, and mostly plants in the aster family in the summer.

The cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV) is a mosaic virus that affects the production of green cardamom (E. cardamomum). It is a member of the genus Macluravirus (recognized under the family Potyviridae by ICTV in 1988), and is transmitted through aphids (P.caladii) and infected rhizomes, the former in a non-persistent manner.

Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni is a species of phytoplasma in the class Mollicutes, a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The specific epithet pruni means "living on Prunus", emphasizing the fact that the phytoplasma is a parasite of various Prunus species, otherwise known as stone fruits. The phytoplasma is commonly called the X-disease phytoplasma.

References

  1. ↑ International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses. 2002. Plum pox virus
  2. ↑ Coşkan, Sevgi; Morca, Ali Ferhan; Akbaş, Birol; Çelik, Ali; Santosa, Adyatma Irawan (August 2022). "Comprehensive surveillance and population study on plum pox virus in Ankara Province of Turkey". Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection. 129 (4): 981–991. doi:10.1007/s41348-022-00597-5.
  3. 1 2 APHIS. Plum Pox Potyvirus Disease of Stone Fruits
  4. ↑ Dallot, Sylvie; Glasa, Miroslav; Jevremovic, Darko; Kamenova, Ivanka; Paunovic, Svetlana; Labonne, Gérard (March 2011). "Mediterranean and central-eastern European countries host viruses of two different clades of plum pox virus strain M". Archives of Virology. 156 (3): 539–542. doi:10.1007/s00705-011-0918-y.
  5. ↑ Gürcan, Kahraman; Teber, Saffet; Çağlayan, Kadriye (May 2019). "Further investigation of a genetically divergent group of plum pox virus-M strain in Turkey". Journal of Plant Pathology. 101 (2): 385–391. doi:10.1007/s42161-018-0187-7.
  6. ↑ Hajizadeh, Mohammad; Gibbs, Adrian J.; Amirnia, Fahimeh; Glasa, Miroslav (2019-10-01). "The global phylogeny of Plum pox virus is emerging". Journal of General Virology . Microbiology Society. 100 (10): 1457–1468. doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.001308 . ISSN   0022-1317. PMID   31418674. S2CID   201019019.
  7. 1 2 Çelik, Ali; Santosa, Adyatma Irawan; Ertunç, Filiz (21 April 2022). "The monitoring of plum pox virus in Bursa, Bilecik, and Bolu provinces of Turkey refined MIs status as a variant of strain M". Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection. 55 (7): 874–885. doi:10.1080/03235408.2022.2052523.
  8. ↑ Alford, David V. (17 July 2014). Pests of Fruit Crops: A Colour Handbook, Second Edition. CRC Press. p. 74. ISBN   978-1-4822-5421-1.
  9. ↑ Van Emden, Helmut Fritz; Harrington, Richard (2007). Aphids as Crop Pests. CABI. pp. 658–. ISBN   978-0-85199-819-0.
  10. ↑ Rimbaud, Loup; Dallot, Sylvie; Gottwald, Tim; Decroocq, Véronique; Jacquot, Emmanuel; Soubeyrand, Samuel; Thébaud, Gaël (2015-08-04). "Sharka Epidemiology and Worldwide Management Strategies: Learning Lessons to Optimize Disease Control in Perennial Plants". Annual Review of Phytopathology . Annual Reviews. 53 (1): 357–378. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080614-120140. ISSN   0066-4286.
  11. ↑ GM Crop Database ARS-PLMC5-6 (C5) [Usurped!] Center for Environmental Risk Assessment, 24 February 2009, Retrieved 25 April 2011
  12. ↑ Hily JM, Scorza R, Malinowski T, Zawadzka B, Ravelonandro M (October 2004). "Stability of gene silencing-based resistance to Plum pox virus in transgenic plum (Prunus domestica L.) under field conditions". Transgenic Res. 13 (5): 427–36. doi:10.1007/s11248-004-8702-3. PMID   15587267. S2CID   29500093.
  13. ↑ Levy et al. 2000. Plum Pox Potyvirus Disease of Stone Fruits. American Phytopathological Society

Host preference of the major strains of Plum pox virus—Opinions based on regional and world-wide sequence data N Sihelská Journal of Integrative Agriculture 16(3):510 Elsevier 2017 2095-3119

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