Priyayi

Last updated
Portrait of Banjoemas, the Regent of Purwokerto, with his wife. A retainer can be seen sitting behind the regent COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Portret van de regent van Poerwokerto Banjoemas met zijn echtgenote TMnr 10001900.jpg
Portrait of Banjoemas, the Regent of Purwokerto, with his wife. A retainer can be seen sitting behind the regent

Priyayi (former spelling: Prijaji) was the Dutch-era class of the nobles of the robe, as opposed to royal nobility or ningrat (Javanese), in Java, Indonesia. Priyayi is a Javanese word originally denoting the descendants of the adipati or governors, the first of whom were appointed in the 17th century by the Sultan Agung of Mataram to administer the principalities he had conquered. Initially court officials in pre-colonial kingdoms, the priyayi moved into the colonial civil service and then on to administrators of the modern Indonesian Republic. [1]

Contents

Pre-colonial period

Mataram Sultanate during Sultan Agung's reign, mid-17th century. Mataram Sultanate in Sultan Agung Reign.svg
Mataram Sultanate during Sultan Agung's reign, mid-17th century.

The Mataram Sultanate, an Islamic polity in south-central Java that reached its peak in the 17th century, developed a kraton ("court") culture from which the Sultan emerged as a charismatic figure who ruled over a relatively independent aristocracy. [2] Named para yayi ("the king’s brothers"), nobles, officials, administrators, and chiefs were integrated into a patron-client relationship with the Sultan to preside over the peripheries of the kingdom. [3] The homeland of priyayi culture is attributed to Mataram’s center, namely the Javanese-speaking middle and eastern parts of Java. [4] Although "Javanized" by Mataram’s political expansion, the Sundanese-speaking western part of Java, the easternmost parts of Java, and the nearby island of Madura retain ethnic, linguistic, and cultural differences from the Mataramese heartland. [5]

Colonial period

The regent of Surabaya, Raden Tumenggung Musono went in gala dress for his installation, accompanied by lower-ranking officials, patih, and wedana (Dutch colonial period) COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De regent van Surabaya Raden Tumenggung Musono loopt opweg naar zijn installatie het gouverneurserf op en wordt vergezeld door patih en wedono's in gala-tenue TMnr 10003356.jpg
The regent of Surabaya, Raden Tumenggung Musono went in gala dress for his installation, accompanied by lower-ranking officials, patih, and wedana (Dutch colonial period)

After the arrival of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the collapse of Mataram, the Sunanate of Surakarta and Sultanate Yogyakarta became centers of Javanese political power since the 1755 Treaty of Giyanti. Although Dutch political influence severely limited their autonomy throughout the colonial period, the two kingdoms continued to serve as symbols of Javanese courtly culture. [6] In the lowland rural areas of Java, the presence of a centralized indigenous bureaucracy strengthened state control over uncultivated land and helped transform the peasantry from independent smallholders to agricultural laborers. [7]

Government offices

Outside of the areas ruled directly by Yogyakarta and Surakarta, Dutch colonial authorities established two civil service bodies: the Binnenlands Bestuur ("Interior Administration"), staffed by Dutch officials, and the Pangreh Praja ("Ruler of the Realm"), the indigenous bureaucracy. [8]

By 1926, the Binnenlands Bestuur in the directly ruled areas of Java and Madura consisted of the following offices with territorial responsibilities, in descending order: [8]

  1. Governor; 3 positions
  2. Resident; approximately 20 positions
  3. Assistant Resident; approximately 70 positions
Raden Tumenggung Danoediningrat, Regent of Kediri, with his wife. c. 1920. COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Raden Toemenggoeng Danoediningrat de regent van Kediri met zijn vrouw TMnr 60020738.jpg
Raden Tumenggung Danoediningrat, Regent of Kediri, with his wife. c. 1920.

In turn, there were three pangreh praja offices with territorial responsibilities, staffed by the indigenous priyayi, in descending order: [8]

  1. Bupati ("Regent"); approximately 70 positions. A bupati is responsible for a kabupaten, often a polity with a semi-autonomous history. The position of a bupati was often inherited from father to son, a practice allowed under the 1854 Dutch Constitutions, and families of the bupati often formed a local aristocratic class. The bupati is subordinate to, and usually has a one-to-one correspondence with, the assistant resident ‒ the lowest-ranking official of the Binnenlands Bestuur.
  2. Wedana ("District Chief"); approximately 400 positions.
  3. Asisten Wedana ("Sub-District Chief"); approximately 1,200 positions.

Other colonial government employees considered to be of priyayi stature included tax officials, prosecutors, and officials attached to police units. [8] By 1931, Europeans accounted only for 10 percent of the entire state apparatus in the Dutch East Indies, and over 250,000 native officials were on the state payroll. [9] In Java, a class distinction existed between priyagung ("upper priyayi"), a group well connected to the aristocratic elite in Surakarta and Yogyakarta, and priyayi cilik ("lower priyayi"). [8] Nonetheless, the social distance separating the priyayi from the peasantry is much greater than that separating the priyagung from the priyayi cilik. [10]

Nationalist movements

A group portrait of J. Visser and students at the OSVIA, a training school for native government officials in the Dutch East Indies. COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Groepsportret van Mr. J. Visser met leerlingen van de Opleidingsschool voor Inlandse Ambtenaren (OSVIA) TMnr 60050034.jpg
A group portrait of J. Visser and students at the OSVIA, a training school for native government officials in the Dutch East Indies.

In 1901, the Dutch East Indies government established the so-called Ethische Politiek ("Ethical Politics") as an official policy. [11] The Ethical Politics paradigm extended the colonial state control through educational, religious, agricultural, resource extraction, and political surveillance institutions over the native population until the Japanese occupation of 1942. [11] Western-style education became available to the native populace, although only the wealthy could afford tuition at the secondary and tertiary institutions where Dutch was the primary language of instruction. [12] Among the Javanese, priyayi men were the first to be educated at Western-style institutions before entering the colonial civil service. [13]

Nationalistic sentiments among Javanese elites who received Dutch education were formative in the era of the Indonesian National Awakening. The Boedi Oetomo, the first indigenous political society in the Dutch East Indies, was established by a group of priyayi doctors and medical students in 1908. [14] Although the group was confined to a Javanese, male priyayi following, the Boedi Oetomo was the first in a series of indigenous political activism in the Dutch East Indies. [14] The Boedi Oetomo gave rise to prominent priyayi figures such as Soetatmo Soeriekosomo (1888-1924) and Noto Soeroto (1888-1951), who are advocates for ethnic nationalism through the Committee for Javanese Nationalism, as well as advocates of Indies-wide nationalism, such as Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo (1886-1943) who later founded the Indische Party. [15] The emergence of other ethnic nationalist groups and Indies-nationalist political parties in Java later eclipsed Javanese nationalism and gave rise to the emergence of a broader, Indonesian-language nationalism throughout the 1920s and 30s. [16]

Post-independence period

The recognition of the Republic of Indonesia in 1949 by Dutch authorities resulted in the integration of bureaucratic institutions from Dutch-controlled federal states into the new Republic. [17] The number of civil servants in Indonesia thus grew from 115,000 in the late 1920s to 400,000 in the early 1950s. [17] However, the strategic top echelons were dominated by an elite group of 100,000 Dutch-trained senior officials, which were concentrated in the Ministry of the Interior. [17] By the 1980s, Indonesia’s civil service expanded to approximately 2 million members, which amounted to 13.9 civil servants per 1,000 of the population, in contrast to the much lower 3.7 per 1,000 in 1950. [18]

Although the status of a priyayi does not have a formal presence in post-independence Indonesian law, proximity to the executive branches of the state, which it symbolizes, remained a popular mode of upward socio-political mobility from the 1950s and after. [19] The New Order government of Suharto encouraged traditional priyayi and corporatist values in the Indonesian civil service, especially through the establishment of the Indonesian Civil Servants' Corps (KORPRI) in 1971. [20]

Titles

The priyayi class used an elaborate title system. Some of the commonly used titles among Javanese nobility were: [21]

The order of precedence for male nobility titles is: a simple Mas is the lowest, followed by simple Raden, and then the higher titles are compound titles of Raden Mas, Raden Panji, Raden Tumenggung, Raden Ngabehi, and Raden Aria. These titles were hereditary to some extent; a son would inherit a title one level lower than his parent unless it was already of the lowest rank. [22]

The honorific Raden is related to the Malagasy noble titles of Randriana or Andriana, both of which are derived from the word "Rahadyan" (Ra-hadi-an), meaning "Lord" or "Master" in Old Javanese. [23]

Cultural attributes

American cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz explained two cultural oppositions in priyayi worldview that characterizes the priyayi as a social status: alus ("refined") against kasar ("unrefined"), and batin ("inner human experience") against lahir ("outer human behavior"). [24] As a feudalistic subculture in Javanese society distinct from the peasantry, priyayi culture emphasizes the alus over the kasar, and the batin over the lahir. [24]

Religion

The principal religion of the ethnic Javanese populace in the provinces of Central Java, East Java, and the Special Region of Yogyakarta is Islam, although there are minorities of Roman Catholic Christians, Protestant Christians, Hindus, and Buddhists. [25] Within Javanese Islam, Geertz identified three alirans, or cultural streams: the abangan , the santri , and the priyayi. [26] Members of the santri stream are more likely to be urban dwellers and tend to be oriented to the mosque, the Qur'an, and Islamic canon law. In contrast, the abangan tend to be from village peasant backgrounds and absorb both Hindu and Muslim elements, forming a culture of animist and folk traditions. [1] The priyayi stream is the traditional bureaucratic elite and was strongly driven by hierarchical Hindu-Javanese tradition. [1] The santri are sometimes referred to as Putihan ("the white ones") as distinct from the 'red' abangan. In general, the religion of the priyayi is closer to the abangan tradition than the santri, because it combines Indic polytheism and Islamic monotheism. [27] Public rituals, such as slametan, or the communal feast, are practiced in abangan peasant and priyayi households alike. [28]

Priyayi families on the coastal center and eastern parts of the island, however, emphasize genealogical ties to the wali sanga , the nine Islamic saints of Java, and are closer to the santri in their religious practices than their hinterland counterparts. [5]

Socio-economic status

While the abangan are often peasants, the priyayi is the class of the landed gentry of towns and urban population centers. [29] Unlike feudal landlords, however, the priyayi of the Dutch colonial period are white-collar government employees who work as bureaucrats, teachers, and clerks. [29] The priyayi distinguish themselves from the peasantry and the merchant class by defining their work for the government as alus ("refined"), as opposed to trading, farming, and laboring, which are defined as kasar ("unrefined"). [30] An early 19th-century poem, "Suluk Mas Nganten," written by Jayadiningrat I, a Surakarta courtier, describes priyayi as a charismatic power, and not just socio-economic stature, that merchants cannot achieve: [31]

Ana maneh nisthane wong memantu
ana ta sudagar cilik
awatara sugihipun
kepengin cara priyayi
Again there is the shame of one who held a wedding
There was a petty merchant
Middling was his wealth
He yearned to follow the style of the priyayi

Priyayi families, however, also engage in trading through informal channels. Until the 1980s, priyayi women often supplemented their household income by selling homemade textiles and craftswear, although trading in public places is seen as inappropriate for upper- and middle-class priyayi women. [32]

Language

Literacy and command of multiple Javanese language registers were sources of priyayi prestige during the Dutch colonial era when the majority of Java’s population was illiterate. [33] The two major levels of discourse in the Javanese language are krama ("formal") and ngoko ("informal"). [33] Mastery of krama, a set of registers primarily spoken up the social hierarchy, requires high levels of education. [33] Towards the end of the 19th century, when younger cadres of priyayi received Dutch-language education, the Javanese "inner elite" began adopting Dutch not only as a language used at work when interacting with the Dutch but also at home and among Javanese circles. [34] The colonial era priyayi, therefore, became a largely bilingual class. [35] Since independence, Indonesian has been adopted as a national language, and new styles of Indonesian and Javanese have emerged as a continuation of the krama and ngoko registers in official publications and popular literature. [36]

Arts

A batik pattern from Yogyakarta Batikyogya 02.jpg
A batik pattern from Yogyakarta

The priyayi are patrons and practitioners of classical, courtly Javanese art forms, which they regard as alus and refined in contrast to the peasant art forms: [37]

  1. wayang ; the shadow-play that performs Javanese retellings of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the history of pre-colonial Javanese kingdoms
  2. gamelan ; the percussion orchestra that accompanies wayang performances or performs independently
  3. lakon; dramatizations of wayang stories and myths that are retold orally
  4. tembang ; rigid forms of poetry that is recited or sung with gamelan accompaniment
  5. batik ; textile-making with wax and dye

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 McDonald (1980) , pp. 9–10
  2. ↑ Sutherland (1975) , p. 58
  3. ↑ Schiel (1990) , p. 75
  4. ↑ Sutherland (1975) , pp. 57–58
  5. 1 2 Sutherland (1975) , pp. 61–62
  6. ↑ Carey (1997) , pp. 711–713
  7. ↑ Schiel (1990) , p. 79
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Sutherland (1973) , p. 114
  9. ↑ Anderson (1990) , p. 98
  10. ↑ Anderson & Soejatno (1974) , pp. 99–100
  11. 1 2 Anderson (1990) , p. 97
  12. ↑ Schijf & The (1992) , pp. 40–47
  13. ↑ Hagen (1997) , p. 114
  14. 1 2 Fakih (2012) , p. 420
  15. ↑ Shiraishi (1981) , p. 93
  16. ↑ Suryadinata (1978) , pp. 104–107
  17. 1 2 3 Nordholt (2011) , p. 399
  18. ↑ Evers (1997) , p. 672
  19. ↑ Nordholt (2011) , p. 400
  20. ↑ Cribb & Kahin (2004) , p. 357
  21. ↑ Atmosumarto (2004)
  22. ↑ Ibrahim, Siddique & Hussain (1985)
  23. ↑ Adelaar (2006)
  24. 1 2 Geertz (1960) , p. 232
  25. ↑ Cribb & Kahin (2004) , p. lxv
  26. ↑ Geertz (1960) , p. 121
  27. ↑ Geertz (1960) , p. 234
  28. ↑ Geertz (1960) , p. 235
  29. 1 2 Geertz (1960) , p. 229
  30. ↑ Geertz (1960) , p. 230
  31. ↑ Brenner (1991) , pp. 67–68
  32. ↑ Brenner (1991) , pp. 78–79
  33. 1 2 3 Anderson (1990) , p. 131
  34. ↑ Anderson (1990) , p. 132
  35. ↑ Anderson (1990) , p. 134
  36. ↑ Anderson (1990) , pp. 144–147
  37. ↑ Geertz (1960) , p. 261

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Central Java</span> Province of Indonesia

Central Java is a province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in the south, East Java in the east, and the Java Sea in the north. It has a total area of 33,750.37 km2, with a population of 36,516,035 at the 2020 Census making it the third-most populous province in both Java and Indonesia after West Java and East Java. The official population estimate in mid-2023 was 37,608,336 The province also includes a number of offshore islands, including the island of Nusakambangan in the south, and the Karimun Jawa Islands in the Java Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javanese people</span> Largest ethnic group in Indonesia and Southeast Asia

The Javanese are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java. With more than 100 million people, Javanese people are the largest ethnic group in both Indonesia and in Southeast Asia as a whole. Their native language is Javanese, it is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers and also the largest regional language in Southeast Asia. The Javanese as the largest ethnic group in the region have dominated the historical, social, and political landscape in the past as well as in modern Indonesia and Southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mataram Sultanate</span> Kingdom on the island of Java (1586–1755)

The Sultanate of Mataram was the last major independent Javanese kingdom on the island of Java before it was colonised by the Dutch. It was the dominant political force radiating from the interior of Central Java from the late 16th century until the beginning of the 18th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raden Saleh</span> Indonesian painter

Raden Saleh Sjarif Boestaman was a pioneering Indonesian Romantic painter of Arab-Javanese ethnicity. He was considered to be the first "modern" artist from Indonesia, and his paintings corresponded with nineteenth-century romanticism which was popular in Europe at the time. He also expressed his cultural roots and inventiveness in his work.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sultan Agung of Mataram</span> Sultan of Mataram (r. 1613–1645)

Sultan Anyakrakusuma is known as Sultan Agung was the third Sultan of Mataram in Central Java ruling from 1613 to 1645. He was a skilled soldier who conquered neighbouring states and expanded and consolidated his kingdom to its greatest territorial and military power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Budi Utomo</span> Political movement in Dutch Indonesia

Budi Utomo was an early native nationalist political society in the Dutch East Indies. The organization's founding in 1908 is considered instrumental to the beginning of the Indonesian National Awakening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kejawèn</span> Folk religion of Javanese people

Kejawèn or Javanism, also called Kebatinan, Agama Jawa, and Kepercayaan, is a Javanese cultural tradition, consisting of an amalgam of Animistic, Buddhist, Islamic and Hindu aspects. It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity, syncretizing aspects of different religions and traditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sarekat Islam</span> Political organization in Indonesia

Sarekat Islam or Syarikat Islam was an Indonesian socio-political organization founded at the beginning of the 20th century during the Dutch colonial era. Initially, SI served as a cooperative of Muslim Javanese batik traders to compete with the Chinese-Indonesian big traders. From there, SI rapidly evolved into a nationalist political organization that demanded self-governance against the Dutch colonial regime and gained wide popular support. SI was especially active during the 1910s and the early 1920s. By 1916, it claimed 80 branches with a total membership of around 350,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vorstenlanden</span> Four native states on Java, Dutch East Indies

The Vorstenlanden were four native, princely states on the island of Java in the colonial Dutch East Indies. They were nominally self-governing vassals under suzerainty of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Their political autonomy however became increasingly constrained by severe treaties and settlements. Two of these continue to exist as a princely territory within the current independent republic of Indonesia.

<i>Santri</i> Orthodox Javanese religious movement

In Indonesia, santri is a term for someone who follows Islamic religious education in pesantren. Santri usually stay in the place until their education is complete. After completing their study period, some of them will serve the pesantren by becoming administrators. According to C.C. Berg, the term "santri" comes from Sanskrit shastri which means "one who learns Hindu scriptures"; it has the same root as the word shastra (literature).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pakubuwono XII</span> Susuhunan of Surakarta

Pakubuwono XII was the twelfth Susuhunan and the longest ruling of all monarchs in Surakarta history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javanese culture</span> Culture of the Javanese people

Javanese culture is the culture of the Javanese people. Javanese culture is centered in the provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java in Indonesia. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname, the broader Indonesian archipelago region, Cape Malay, Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them various aspects of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances and art of Wayang kulit shadow play.

Kangjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya Mangkunegara I, also known as Pangeran Sambernyawa, his birth name was Raden Mas Said, established the Puro Mangkunegaran, in Surakarta, Java Island. Thus, he was the first ruler of The Principality of Mangkunegaran.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surakarta Sunanate</span> Javanese monarchy

Surakarta Sunanate is a Javanese monarchy centred in the city of Surakarta, in the province of Central Java, Indonesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Madiun Regency</span> Regency of Indonesia

Madiun Regency is a landlocked Regency in East Java province, Indonesia. It covers an area of 1,010.86 km2, and had a population of 662,278 at the 2010 Census and 744,350 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as of mid-2023 was 747,589. It is bordered by Bojonegoro Regency in the north, Nganjuk Regency in the east, Ponorogo Regency in the south, and Magetan Regency and Ngawi Regency in the west, while the independent city of Madiun is an enclave within the regency.

Wahidin Soedirohoesodo (1852–1917) was a medical doctor and education reformer in the Dutch East Indies who co-founded the Javanese self-improvement society Budi Utomo. Therefore, he is sometimes considered an early figure in the Indonesian National Awakening. In 1973 he was declared a National Hero of Indonesia.

Pakubuwono I, uncle of Amangkurat III of Mataram was a combatant for the succession of the Mataram dynasty, both as a co-belligerent during the Trunajaya rebellion, and the First Javanese War of Succession (1704–1707).

Djawi-Hisworo was a newspaper printed in Surakarta, Dutch East Indies from 1909 to 1919 in Malay and Javanese. It was considered the mouthpiece of the early Javanese self-improvement organization Boedi Oetomo.

Paramita Rahayu Abdurachman, also known as Jo Abdurachman, was an Indonesian historian and social worker who served as the secretary-general of the Indonesian Red Cross Society for nearly a decade. After her retirement from the organization, she became a researcher at the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, studying the history of the Maluku Islands using Spanish and Portuguese colonial archives.

<i>Letters of a Javanese Princess</i> Dutch-language book of collected letters by Kartini

Letters of a Javanese Princess is a posthumous book of letters by the Dutch East Indies women's rights activist and intellectual Kartini. The letters, which were written in Dutch, reveal Kartini's views on society and modern life, and were collected by one of Kartini's correspondents Jacques Henrij Abendanon and published in 1911. They have since been translated into a number of other languages, including an English language version in 1920 and a Malay language version published by Balai Pustaka in 1922. The book became an important symbol both for liberal Dutch colonial policy and for Indonesian nationalism.

References

  • Adelaar, Alexander (2006). "The Indonesian migrations to Madagascar: Making sense of the multidisciplinary evidence" (PDF). In Alexander Adelaar (ed.). Austronesian diaspora and the ethnogenesis of people in Indonesian Archipelago. Lipi Press.[ permanent dead link ]
  • Anderson, Benedict (1990). Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia . Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
  • Anderson, Benedict; Soejatno (1974). "Revolution and Social Tensions in Surakarta 1945-1950". Indonesia. 17 (17): 99–111. doi:10.2307/3350775. hdl: 1813/53581 . JSTOR   3350775.
  • Atmosumarto, Sutanto (2004). A learner's comprehensive dictionary of Indonesian. Atma Stanton. ISBN   9780954682804.
  • Brenner, Suzanne A. (1991). "Competing Hierarchies: Merchants and the Priyayi Elite in Solo, Central Java". Indonesia. 52 (52): 55–83. doi:10.2307/3351155. hdl: 1813/53965 . JSTOR   3351155.
  • Carey, Peter (1997). "Civilization on Loan: The Making of an Upstart Polity: Mataram and Its Successors, 1600-1830". Modern Asian Studies. 31 (3): 711–734. doi:10.1017/s0026749x00017121.
  • Cribb, Robert; Kahin, Audrey (2004). Historical Dictionary of Southeast Asia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
  • Evers, Hans-Dieter (1997). "The Bureaucratization of Southeast Asia". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 29 (4): 666–685. doi:10.1017/S0010417500014833.
  • Fakih, Farabi (2012). "Conservative Corporatist: Nationalist Thoughts of Aristocrats: The ideas of Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo and Noto Soeroto". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 168 (4): 420–444. doi: 10.1163/22134379-90003551 .
  • Geertz, Clifford (1960). The Religion of Java. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
  • Hagen, James (1997). "'Read All about It': The Press and the Rise of National Consciousness in Early Twentieth-Century Dutch East Indies Society". Anthropological Quarterly. 70 (3): 107–126. doi:10.2307/3317671. JSTOR   3317671.
  • Ibrahim, Ahmad; Siddique, Sharon; Hussain, Yasmin (1985). Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN   9789971988081.
  • McDonald, Hamish (1980). Suharto's Indonesia. Melbourne: Fontana.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Nordholt, Henk Schulte (2011). "Indonesia in the 1950s: Nation, Modernity, and the Post-Colonial State". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 167 (4): 386–404. doi: 10.1163/22134379-90003577 . hdl: 20.500.11755/2fd66373-1f4e-4a35-b415-831be5e36afa .
  • Schiel (1975), p. 79
  • Schiel, Tilman (1990). "'Petani' and 'Priyayi': The Transformation of Java and the Rise of Despotism". Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 5 (1): 63–85. doi:10.1355/sj5-1c.
  • Schijf, Huibert; The, Bernardine Anne-Mei (1992). "Chinese Doctors in the Dutch East Indies: Social Mobility among an Ethnic Trading Minority". Indonesia. 53 (53): 33–50. doi:10.2307/3351113. hdl: 1813/53976 . JSTOR   3351113.
  • Shiraishi, Takashi (1981). "The Disputes between Tjipto Mangoenkoesoemo and Soetatmo Soeriokoesoemo: Satria vs. Pandita". Indonesia. 32 (32): 93–108. doi:10.2307/3350857. hdl: 1813/53733 . JSTOR   3350857.
  • Suryadinata, Leo (1978). "Indonesian Nationalism and the Pre-War Youth Movement: A Reexamination". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 9 (1): 99–114. doi:10.1017/S0022463400009553.
  • Sutherland, Heather (1973). "Notes on Java's Regent Families Part 1". Indonesia. 16 (16): 112–147. doi:10.2307/3350649. hdl: 1813/53565 . JSTOR   3350649.
  • Sutherland, Heather (1975). "The Priyayi". Indonesia. 19 (19): 57–77. doi:10.2307/3350702. JSTOR   3350702.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.