Santalum acuminatum, the desert quandong, is a hemiparasitic plant in the sandalwood family, Santalaceae, (Native to Australia) which is widely dispersed throughout the central deserts and southern areas of Australia. The species, especially its edible fruit, is also commonly referred to as quandong or native peach. The use of the fruit as an exotic flavouring, one of the best known bush tucker (bush food), has led to the attempted domestication of the species.
Desert quandong is an evergreen tree,[1] its fruit can be stewed to make pie filling for quandong pies or made into a fruit juice drink. The seed (kernel) inside the tough shell can be extracted to be crushed into a paste then be used on sore gums or an oral gum boil to ease the pain. In far-west New South Wales being one of the few drought-tolerant fruit trees around, many Aboriginal communities and local Australians that know about this fruit like to grow it.[2]
Description
Santalum acuminatum grows as a tall shrub, or small tree, 4 to 6m (13 to 20ft) high and 2–4m (6.6–13.1ft) wide. The rough bark is dark grey and the branches ascending in character. Smaller plants formed by suckers from the roots are sometimes found surrounding larger plants. The smaller branches have a more weeping habit.[3] The slender to ovate leaves are pointed at the tip, and are pale yellowish-green bringing a slightly grey and leathery appearance. These are supported on a short leaf stem, 5 – 10mm long, the leaves themselves being 45 – 115mm long. They are tapered in outline, and arranged in opposite pairs on the branchlets.[4]
Flowers can be green or creamy white on the outer parts, reddish or yellowish brown on the inner faces; these appear on stems, are just 2–3mm across, and are fragrant.[5]Fruit is produced after 4 years and is red or sometimes yellow, measuring between 20 and 25mm across. A 3-mm layer of flesh covers a brain-like nut with a hard shell that encases the seed. This fruit is referred to as a drupe. It ripens from green to a shiny red in late spring or summer, and is globe-shaped and 20 to 40mm across.[6][7] The skin of the fruit is waxy.[8]
Roots are adapted to a hemiparasitic mechanism, using a haustorium, on roots able to reach out 10m to other root systems.
Taxonomy and naming
The species shares the common namequandong with other plants, bearing similar fruit; it may be distinguished as the "desert" or "sweet". The name quandong usually refers to the fruit of S. acuminatum in commercial usage. Variant spelling includes quondong and quandang. The fruit and plant are also named sweet quandong and native peach.[3] The plant was known to many different indigenous language groups, and is therefore known by many different names. The Wiradjuri people of New South Wales use the name guwandhang,[9] from which the name quandong was adapted. Other indigenous names include; wolgol (Noongar, South Western Australia)[10]gutchu (Wotjobaluk, Western Victoria); wanjanu or mangata[11] (Pitjantjatjara, Uluru), and goorti[12] (Narungga).
Mida acuminata was given by Otto Kuntze in an attempted revision, as with Eucarya acuminata (R.Br.) Sprague and Summerh.
A number of cultivars have been named in application for plant breeders' rights, of which two have been accepted and another has been granted. The first named cultivar of the species was named Powell's # 1,[14] but application for legal recognition of this name was withdrawn.[15] The second is known as Powell's Red Supreme.[16] Two names are given as accepted applications in the Plant Varieties Journal: Powell's Red Supreme and Saltbush Lane.[17]
One variety of S. acuminatum is named in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants; following the publication of a description, Santalum acuminatum 'Frahn's Paringa Gem'[18] became the first cultivar to be receive legal protection.[19]
Distribution
Santalum acuminatum is widely distributed throughout most southern regions of mainland Australia, including the arid centre of the country, and in some regions is common. The related Australian sandalwood, Santalum spicatum, was once more populous than this species; commercial exploitation has reversed this position.
The plant occurs in Western Australia's north to Carnarvon and Karratha (21 N), reaching inland from the coastal plains, and is found throughout Southwest Australia.[4] The number of recorded specimens in this region is low, and mainly restricted to coastal sandplains, its range having been impacted by altered land-use in the wheatbelt. Some populations are discontinuous in the distribution range, as with many species of the region, beyond the dispersal range of the seeds. Remote groups of the species are remnant to former distribution ranges, to different climates, and these may be isolated by hundreds of kilometres. The species is one of those in the region to include "wet outliers", small populations outside of the usual low rainfall habitat.[20]
Occurrence of the plant is also recorded in South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales, and Queensland.[3] It is widespread in western New South Wales, eastwards to Dubbo and Culcairn.[21] It is rare in the northwest of the state.[22]
Ecology
Like other members of its genus, the plant is hemiparasitic, able to photosynthesize, but using the root system of other plants to acquire nutrients other than sugars.[7] The plant genus Santalum attaches to other species, in a nondestructive way, sustaining itself by their provision of nitrogen, shade, and water.[4] The roots of the species have pad-like adaptations, that nearly encircle the host's root, which is typical of this genus of sandalwoods. Hosts can be other trees, or grasses, usually several plants are used. The taxa recorded in this relationship are species of genera; Acacia, Maireana, Atriplex, and many others, including hemiparasites such as Exocarpos sparteus. This mechanism allows the plant to acquire 70% of its nitrogen, and some of its water requirements from the roots of other trees and shrubs.[23]
The tree occupies a diverse and widespread range of habitats, including creek beds, granite, gravel plains, and sandy dunes. It is tolerant of drought, salt, and high temperatures, and need not have a nutrient-rich environment. The seedling can become established in the shade of its host, reaching for full sun once developed, so the plant is usually intermingled with host and other species.
The environs of the distribution range are subject to frequent bushfires, this requires the plant to regenerate from its roots, so the species is rarely found as an advanced tree. Those specimens exposed to bushfire and soil disturbance occur as sprawling multistemmed shrubs. The plant's regrowth from the root system gives this species a lead over shrubs that recur from seed. Trees with a single main stem are in locations remote from these factors. The habit of older trees may overwhelm the adjacent plants by monopolising the sunlight and parasitising roots of plants beyond its own canopy.
The foliage, being much paler than other trees and shrubs, makes the plant conspicuous in bushland and scrub. An occurrence of an unmolested specimen is recorded at Woodman Point in Western Australia, an area remote from the high-intensity fires of altered regimens.
Emus eat the fruit, and it forms an important part of their diet; the nut remains undigested in their droppings. This is the usual method of S. acuminatum seed dispersal, when it is within the emu's range.
A number of species interact with this plant, in a number of complex relationships, a noted example being Paraepermenia santaliella, the quandong moth of the family Epermeniidae. Other creatures, such as larvae of nitidulid beetles and the wood white butterfly, also feed on S. acuminatum.
The fruit and nut were important foods to the peoples of arid and semiarid central Australia, especially for its high vitamin C content.[11] It is commercially grown and marketed as a bush food and is sometimes made into a jam, an enterprise begun in the 1970s. It is well known as an exotic food.
Propagation and pests
Inadequate knowledge of the plant's ecology led to many early failures in the cultivation of this species. Commercial trials and propagation by enthusiasts have attempted to reproduce the circumstances of its native habitat; well-drained soil, germination techniques, and selection of appropriate hosts have been more successful. Germinating the seed has been more successful, up to 35% when it is laid aside for 12 – 18months. Growers laying seeds into mulch, obtained from host plants, report a high rate of success.[24] Dormancy can alternatively be broken with the use of Gibberellins, providing greater than 80% germination rates,[25] particularly if paired with good horticultural practice.[26] Cultivation of this plant has faced other obstacles; for example, the species is susceptible to a number of pests and fungal diseases.[27]
The research and development of domestication of the species was first undertaken by Brian Powell, at a property in Quorn, South Australia. The successful plants in this trial are classed as "Significant Trees" by the state's National Trust.[28] This venture came to be supported by the CSIRO, in the 1970s, eventually becoming part of the research body's Sustainable Ecosystems division.[12]
The development of horticultural practice for the establishment of commercial orchards is being researched by a number of projects.[29] Research and trials were undertaken in South Australia by grafting Frahn's Paringa Gem onto seedling rootstock; this is how the cultivar is propagated in orchards, and the first sale of the variety was in 1997.[19]
Host plants are needed in the establishment of an orchard; the species selected for this purpose impart factors affecting growth, resistance to infestation, and the harvest. The study of Melia azedarach (white cedar) as a host to this species revealed that S. acuminatum acquired insecticidal compounds that increased its resistance to the quandong moth. Researchers then determined that neurotoxins found in the host plant, and other substances harmful to mammals, can pass into the harvested fruit.[30]
Diseases
Soil-borne agents of disease, such as Phytophthora and Pythium fungal species, may be present where the plant's preference for well-drained soil is not provided. Nurseries have found the plant to be responsive to the treatments prescribed, if its presence is suspected, such as phosphorous acid soil applications. A climate of high heat and humidity has occasionally induced black spot on the leaves.[27]
Harvest
The fruit and nut of S. acuminatum are collected from the tree, or the nut from a dropping of the emu; wild harvest remains as the primary source for the widely used fruit. This was the method adopted by the colonists after their introduction to it.[31] The plant produces large amounts of fruit in years of good rainfall; Indigenous Australians would dry this harvest and store the flesh for up to 8years.
The establishment of experimental plantations, by the CSIRO in the 1970s, has resulted in a steady increase in supply by orchards to the market. This harvest is able to be protected from infestation, and is an easily identifiable source, meeting the requirements of food safety guidelines for commercial ingredients.
The plants produce a yield of 10 to 25kg of fruit, 40% of the total weight is that of the kernel; the fruit is marketed as a fresh or dried product. The kernel is edible when raw, and is also roasted and salted.[32]
Uses
Culinary use
Leaves and a fruit of quandong, detail of sketch by Olive Pink (1930)
The commercial use of the fruit includes its addition to sweet and savoury foods; the flavour is tart and reminiscent of peach, apricot, or rhubarb. In South AustraliaS. acuminatum is called "wild peach" or "desert peach". The fruit and nut of the plant were featured in a bushfood series of stamps produced by Australia Post. It is well known as an exotic food in foreign markets, sales that greatly exceed the consumption in its own country.[33] The fruit also has free radical-scavenging ability.[34]
The fruit has been made commercially available, the distinctive flavour is used as an additive, particularly as a uniquely Australian product. This has usually been sourced from wild trees, sometimes by Aboriginal corporations, although the viability of commercial orchards is also being trialled.[27] Many Aboriginal peoples are known to have used the fruit, but mainly they gathered the nuts. The undigested nut can be easily gathered from emu droppings.
The kernel has been identified, analysed, and monitored, as a "wild-harvested Australian indigenous food", by Food Standards Australia New Zealand. The product is found to be very high in fats, over half by weight.[35]
Medicinal use
The fruit, containing vitamin C, and the kernel of the nut, containing complex oils, were used by the peoples in whose countries the species occurred. Antibacterial qualities are present in the wood of this, and all the Santalum species, especially in the roots. A known application of the extract was to heal ailments of the skin.[27] The commercial production of cogenor S. spicatum is more advanced than this species, although research is being undertaken into the marketing of these medicinal substances.[27]
Fuel
The seed is very high in flammable oils, like a candlenut, so it is able to be burnt as an illuminant. The wood is also oily, useful for starting a fire as a friction stick.
Timber
The hard, oily, timber is used for furniture and cabinet making by regional craftsmen, but it is not used extensively. It is a durable material, but lacks the aromatic qualities of other sandalwoods. The hard and wrinkled nuts have been used ornamentally, for necklaces and shirt buttons, and were used as marbles on chinese checkers' boards.[36]
History
The oil of sandalwoods, primarily Santalum album, was described and investigated by pharmacologists. The more widely known Australian sandalwood, S. spicatum, was extensively harvested and exported, leaving S. acuminatum as the more common Santalum in many regions.
The established use of the fruit, by Aboriginal peoples, was acknowledged by the early settlers of the colonies; this product was made into jam and chutney. The fruit is frequently mentioned in natural histories and botanical works, such as Flowers and plants of Western Australia,[8] and traded as a commodity, however, the kernel of the seed has, historically, been the most extensively used.
Colonial ethnic groups did not attempt to domesticate indigenous plants in Australia, despite being known and occasionally used, but the great demand from export markets to Singapore, Britain, and elsewhere led to financial backing of growers and enthusiasts. The backyard of Dudley and Lyla Frahn in Paringa, South Australia, contained an orchard of quandongs. The couple recorded yield and qualities of the fruit, one of which became the source for the variety registered and marketed as Frahn's Paringa Gold.[33]
Related Research Articles
Quandong, quandang or quondong is a common name for the species Santalum acuminatum, especially its edible fruit, but may also refer to:
Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus Santalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, some species of these slow-growing trees have suffered over-harvesting in the past.
Corylus avellana, the common hazel, is a species of flowering plant in the birch family Betulaceae, native to Europe and Western Asia. It is an important component of the hedgerows that were, historically, used as property and field boundaries in lowland England. The wood was traditionally grown as coppice, with the poles cut being used for wattle-and-daub building, and agricultural fencing.
Santalum is a genus of woody flowering plants in the Santalaceae family, the best known and commercially valuable of which is the Indian sandalwood tree, S. album. Members of the genus are trees or shrubs. Most are root parasites which photosynthesize their own food, but tap the roots of other species for water and inorganic nutrients. Several species, most notably S. album, produce highly aromatic wood, used for scents and perfumes and for herbal medicine. About 25 known species range across the Indomalayan, Australasian, and Oceanian realms, from India through Malesia to the Pacific Islands, as far as Hawaiʻi and the Juan Fernández Islands off the coast of South America.
Juglans nigra, the eastern American black walnut, is a species of deciduous tree in the walnut family, Juglandaceae, native to North America. It grows mostly in riparian zones, from southern Ontario, west to southeast South Dakota, south to Georgia, northern Florida and southwest to central Texas. Wild trees in the upper Ottawa Valley may be an isolated native population or may have derived from planted trees.
Canarium ovatum, the pili, is a species of tropical tree belonging to the genus Canarium. It is one of approximately 600 species in the family Burseraceae. C. ovatum are native to the Philippines. They are commercially cultivated in the Philippines for their edible nuts and is believed to be indigenous to that country. The fruit and tree are often vulgarized with the umbrella term of "Java almond" which mixes multiple species of the same genus, Canarium.
Acacia acuminata, known as mangart and jam, is a tree in the family Fabaceae. Endemic to Western Australia, it occurs throughout the south west of the State. It is common in the Wheatbelt, and also extends into the semi-arid interior.
Santalum spicatum, the Australian sandalwood, also Waang and other names (Noongar) and Dutjahn (Martu), is a tree native to semi-arid areas at the edge of Southwest Australia, in the state of Western Australia. It is also found in South Australia, where it is protected and listed as a vulnerable species. It is traded as sandalwood, and its sandalwood oil has been used as an aromatic and a food source over history. S. spicatum is one of four Santalum species occurring in Australia.
Exocarpos cupressiformis, with common names that include native cherry, cherry ballart, and cypress cherry, belongs to the sandalwood family of plants. It is a species endemic to Australia. Occasionally the genus name is spelt "Exocarpus" but it appears to be mostly no longer in use.
Santalum album, or Indian sandalwood, is a small tropical tree, and the traditional source of sandalwood oil. It is native to southern India and Southeast Asia. It is considered sacred in some religions like Hinduism, and some cultures place great significance on its fragrant qualities. However, the high value of the species has caused over-exploitation, to the point where the wild population is vulnerable to extinction. Indian sandalwood still commands high prices for its essential oil owing to its high alpha santalol content, but due to lack of sizable trees it is no longer used for fine woodworking as before. The plant is long-lived, but harvest is only viable after many years.
Santalum haleakalae, known as Haleakala sandalwood or ʻIliahi in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering tree in the sandalwood family, that is endemic to the islands of Maui, Lanai, and Molokai in the Hawaiian Islands, part of the United States. It grows in subalpine shrublands at elevations of 1,900 to 2,700 m, especially on the slopes of Haleakalā.
Santalum lanceolatum is an Australian tree of the family Santalaceae. It is commonly known as desert quandong, northern sandalwood, sandalwood, or true sandalwood and in some areas as burdardu. The mature height of this plant is variable, from 1 to 7 m. The flowers are green, white, and cream, appearing between January and October. The species has a distribution throughout central Australia, becoming scattered or unusual in more southern regions.
Santalum murrayanum, commonly known as the bitter quandong, is an Australian plant in the sandalwood family, Santalaceae. The Noongar name for the plant is coolyar.
Sandalwood is the common name of many species of plants and their wood and oils.
Sandalwood oil is an essential oil obtained from the steam distillation of chips and billets cut from the heartwood of various species of sandalwood trees, mainly Santalum album and Santalum spicatum.
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Canarium indicum, known as galip nut, is a mainly dioecious tree native in eastern Melanesia. It is usually found in rainforests, secondary forests, old garden areas, around villages and settlements. It is also used as a shade tree, as a windbreak and in agroforestry. Canarium is important in the world food system as it can be used as a food and timber source, in traditional medicine, intercropping and agroforestry.
↑ "Santalum acuminatum, Sweet Quandong"(PDF). Plant Varieties Journal (Plant Breeder's Rights Australia). 15 (4). 2002. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2 February 2008. 'Powell's Red Supreme' Application No: 2002/020; 'Saltbush Lane' Application No: 2002/021: Accepted: 7 November 2002; Applicant: Australian Quandongs Pty Ltd, Mylor, SA
↑ Cunningham, Geoff M.; Mulham, William E.; Milthorpe, Peter L.; Leigh, John H. (1981). Plants of Western New South Wales. Sydney, New South Wales: NSW Government Printing Service. pp.226–27. ISBN0-7240-2003-9.
1 2 3 4 5 "Quandong Production"(PDF). Department of Primary Industries and Resources – fact sheet. Government of South Australia. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 August 2007.
↑ Steve Davidson. "Hosting the quandong"(PDF). CSIRO. citing: Transfer of photosynthate and naturally occurring insecticidal compounds from host plants to the root hemiparasite Santalum acuminatum (Santalaceae). B. R. Loveys, S. D. Tyerman and B. R. Loveys. Australian Journal of Botany 49(1) 9–16
↑ Nash, Daphne. "4 Common Reed Phragmites australis". Aboriginal Plant Use in South-Eastern Australia. Australian National Botanic Gardens – Education Service. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
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