Timeline of particle physics

Last updated June 13, 2024

The timeline of particle physics lists the sequence of particle physics theories and discoveries in chronological order. The most modern developments follow the scientific development of the discipline of particle physics.

19th century

1815 – William Prout hypothesizes that all matter is built up from hydrogen, adumbrating the proton;
1838 – Richard Laming hypothesized a subatomic particle carrying electric charge;
1858 – Julius Plücker produced cathode rays;
1874 – George Johnstone Stoney hypothesizes a minimum unit of electric charge. In 1891, he coins the word electron for it;
1886 – Eugen Goldstein produced anode rays;
1897 – J. J. Thomson discovered the electron;
1899 – Ernest Rutherford discovered the alpha and beta particles emitted by uranium;
1900 – Paul Villard discovered the gamma ray in uranium decay.

20th century

1905 – Albert Einstein hypothesized the photon to explain the photoelectric effect.
1911 – Hans Geiger, Ernest Marsden and Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus of an atom;
1919 – Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton;
1927 – Charles Drummond Ellis (along with James Chadwick and colleagues) finally establish clearly that the beta decay spectrum is in fact continuous and not discrete, posing a problem that will later be solved by theorizing (and later discovering) the existence of the neutrino.
1928 – Paul Dirac postulated the existence of positrons as a consequence of the Dirac equation;
1930 – Wolfgang Pauli postulated the neutrino to explain the energy spectrum of beta decays;
1932 – James Chadwick discovered the neutron;
1932 – Carl D. Anderson discovered the positron;
1935 – Hideki Yukawa predicted the existence of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force;
1936 – Carl D. Anderson discovered the muon while he studied cosmic radiation;
1947 – George Dixon Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler discovered the kaon, the first strange particle;
1947 – Cecil Powell, César Lattes and Giuseppe Occhialini discovered the pion;
1955 – Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis discovered the antiproton;
1955 and 1956 – Murray Gell-Mann and Kazuhiko Nishijima independently derive the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula, which relates the baryon number, the strangeness, and the isospin of hadrons to the charge, eventually leading to the systematic categorization of hadrons and, ultimately, the quark model of hadron composition.
1956 – Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines discovered the (electron) neutrino;
1957 – Bruno Pontecorvo postulated the flavor oscillation;
1962 – Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger discovered the muon neutrino;
1962 – Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman independently classify the hadrons according to a system that Gell-Mann called the Eightfold Way, and which ultimately led to the quark model (1964) of hadron composition.
1963 – Nicola Cabibbo develops the mathematical matrix by which the first two (and ultimately three) generations of quarks can be predicted.
1964 – Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently propose the quark model of hadrons, predicting the arbitrarily named up, down, and strange quarks. Gell-Mann is credited with coining the term quark, which he found in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake .
1964 – François Englert, Robert Brout, Peter Higgs, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble postulate that a fundamental quantum field, now called the Higgs field, permeates space and, by way of the Higgs mechanism, provides mass to all the elementary subatomic particles that interact with it. While the Higgs field is postulated to confer mass on quarks and leptons, it represents only a tiny portion of the masses of other subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons. In these, gluons that bind quarks together confer most of the particle mass. The result is obtained independently by three groups: François Englert and Robert Brout; Peter Higgs, working from the ideas of Philip Anderson; and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]
1964 – Sheldon Glashow and James Bjorken predict the existence of the charm quark. The addition is proposed because it allows for a better description of the weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks and other particles to decay), equalizes the number of known quarks with the number of known leptons, and implies a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known mesons.
1967 – Bruno Pontecorvo postulated neutrino oscillation;
1967 – Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam publish papers in which they describe Yang–Mills theory using the SU(2) X U(1) supersymmetry group, thereby yielding a mass for the W particle of the weak interaction via spontaneous symmetry breaking.
1968 – Stanford University: Deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) show that the proton contains much smaller, point-like objects and is therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists at the time are reluctant to identify these objects with quarks, instead calling them partons — a term coined by Richard Feynman. The objects that are observed at SLAC will later be identified as up and down quarks. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons). The existence of the strange quark is indirectly validated by the SLAC's scattering experiments: not only is it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provides an explanation for the kaon (K) and pion (π) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.
1970 – Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani predict the charmed quark that is subsequently found experimentally and share a Nobel prize for their theoretical prediction.
1973 – Frank Anthony Wilczek discover the quark asymptotic freedom in the theory of strong interactions; receives the Lorentz Medal in 2002, and the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004 for his discovery and his subsequent contributions to quantum chromodynamics.^[8]
1973 – Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa note that the experimental observation of CP violation can be explained if an additional pair of quarks exist. The two new quarks are eventually named top and bottom.
1974 – Burton Richter and Samuel Ting: Charm quarks are produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see November Revolution) — one at SLAC under Burton Richter, and one at Brookhaven National Laboratory under Samuel Ting. The charm quarks are observed bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two discovering parties independently assign the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ψ; thus, it becomes formally known as the J/ψ meson. The discovery finally convinces the physics community of the quark model's validity.
1975 – Martin Lewis Perl, with his colleagues at the SLAC–LBL group, detects the tau in a series of experiments between 1974 and 1977.
1977 – Leon Lederman observes the bottom quark with his team at Fermilab.^[9] This discovery is a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would be without a partner that is required by the mathematics of the theory.
1977 – Martin Lewis Perl discovered the tau lepton after a series of experiments;
1979 – Gluon observed indirectly in three-jet events at DESY;
1983 – Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer discovered the W and Z bosons;
1995 – The top quark is finally observed by a team at Fermilab after an 18-year search.^[9] It has a mass much greater than had been previously expected — almost as great as a gold atom.
1998 – The Super-Kamiokande (Japan) detector facility reports experimental evidence for neutrino oscillations, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.^[10]

21st century

2000 – CERN announced quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter.^[11]
2000 - scientists at Fermilab announce the first direct evidence for the tau neutrino, the third kind of neutrino in particle physics.^[9]
2001 – the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) confirm the existence of neutrino oscillations. Lene Hau stops a beam of light completely in a Bose–Einstein condensate.^[12]
2005 – the RHIC accelerator of Brookhaven National Laboratory generates a "perfect" fluid, perhaps the quark–gluon plasma.^[13]
2012 – Higgs boson-like particle discovered at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC).^[14]
2014 - The LHCb experiment observes particles consistent with tetraquarks and pentaquarks ^[15]
2014 - The T2K and OPERA experiment observe the appearance of electron neutrinos and Tau neutrinos in a muon neutrino beam ^[16]^[17]

Related Research Articles

A gluon is a type of massless elementary particle that mediates the strong interaction between quarks, acting as the exchange particle for the interaction. Gluons are massless vector bosons, thereby having a spin of 1. Through the strong interaction, gluons bind quarks into groups according to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), forming hadrons such as protons and neutrons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hadron</span> Composite subatomic particle

In particle physics, a hadron is a composite subatomic particle made of two or more quarks held together by the strong interaction. They are analogous to molecules, which are held together by the electric force. Most of the mass of ordinary matter comes from two hadrons: the proton and the neutron, while most of the mass of the protons and neutrons is in turn due to the binding energy of their constituent quarks, due to the strong force.

Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons, while the study of combination of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics.

A quark is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. All commonly observable matter is composed of up quarks, down quarks and electrons. Owing to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, which include baryons and mesons, or in quark–gluon plasmas. For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of hadrons.

In theoretical physics, quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is the study of the strong interaction between quarks mediated by gluons. Quarks are fundamental particles that make up composite hadrons such as the proton, neutron and pion. QCD is a type of quantum field theory called a non-abelian gauge theory, with symmetry group SU(3). The QCD analog of electric charge is a property called color. Gluons are the force carriers of the theory, just as photons are for the electromagnetic force in quantum electrodynamics. The theory is an important part of the Standard Model of particle physics. A large body of experimental evidence for QCD has been gathered over the years.

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces in the universe and classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.

The strange quark or s quark is the third lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle. Strange quarks are found in subatomic particles called hadrons. Examples of hadrons containing strange quarks include kaons, strange D mesons, Sigma baryons, and other strange particles.

The up quark or u quark is the lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a significant constituent of matter. It, along with the down quark, forms the neutrons and protons of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of +2/3 e and a bare mass of 2.2+0.5
−0.4 MeV/c². Like all quarks, the up quark is an elementary fermion with spin 1/2, and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the up quark is the up antiquark, which differs from it only in that some of its properties, such as charge have equal magnitude but opposite sign.

The down quark is a type of elementary particle, and a major constituent of matter. The down quark is the second-lightest of all quarks, and combines with other quarks to form composite particles called hadrons. Down quarks are most commonly found in atomic nuclei, where it combines with up quarks to form protons and neutrons. The proton is made of one down quark with two up quarks, and the neutron is made up of two down quarks with one up quark. Because they are found in every single known atom, down quarks are present in all everyday matter that we interact with.

The charm quark, charmed quark, or c quark is an elementary particle found in composite subatomic particles called hadrons such as the J/psi meson and the charmed baryons created in particle accelerator collisions. Several bosons, including the W and Z bosons and the Higgs boson, can decay into charm quarks. All charm quarks carry charm, a quantum number. This second generation particle is the third-most-massive quark with a mass of 1.27±0.02 GeV/c² as measured in 2022 and a charge of +2/3 e.

The top quark, sometimes also referred to as the truth quark, is the most massive of all observed elementary particles. It derives its mass from its coupling to the Higgs Boson. This coupling $y$ _t is very close to unity; in the Standard Model of particle physics, it is the largest (strongest) coupling at the scale of the weak interactions and above. The top quark was discovered in 1995 by the CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab.

Peter Ware Higgs was a British theoretical physicist, professor at the University of Edinburgh, and Nobel laureate in Physics for his work on the mass of subatomic particles.

In the Standard Model of particle physics, the Higgs mechanism is essential to explain the generation mechanism of the property "mass" for gauge bosons. Without the Higgs mechanism, all bosons (one of the two classes of particles, the other being fermions) would be considered massless, but measurements show that the W⁺, W⁻, and Z⁰ bosons actually have relatively large masses of around 80 GeV/c². The Higgs field resolves this conundrum. The simplest description of the mechanism adds a quantum field (the Higgs field) which permeates all of space to the Standard Model. Below some extremely high temperature, the field causes spontaneous symmetry breaking during interactions. The breaking of symmetry triggers the Higgs mechanism, causing the bosons it interacts with to have mass. In the Standard Model, the phrase "Higgs mechanism" refers specifically to the generation of masses for the W^±, and Z weak gauge bosons through electroweak symmetry breaking. The Large Hadron Collider at CERN announced results consistent with the Higgs particle on 14 March 2013, making it extremely likely that the field, or one like it, exists, and explaining how the Higgs mechanism takes place in nature. The view of the Higgs mechanism as involving spontaneous symmetry breaking of a gauge symmetry is technically incorrect since by Elitzur's theorem gauge symmetries can never be spontaneously broken. Rather, the Fröhlich–Morchio–Strocchi mechanism reformulates the Higgs mechanism in an entirely gauge invariant way, generally leading to the same results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exotic hadron</span> Subatomic particles consisting of quarks and gluons

Exotic hadrons are subatomic particles composed of quarks and gluons, but which – unlike "well-known" hadrons such as protons, neutrons and mesons – consist of more than three valence quarks. By contrast, "ordinary" hadrons contain just two or three quarks. Hadrons with explicit valence gluon content would also be considered exotic. In theory, there is no limit on the number of quarks in a hadron, as long as the hadron's color charge is white, or color-neutral.

The DØ experiment was a worldwide collaboration of scientists conducting research on the fundamental nature of matter. DØ was one of two major experiments located at the Tevatron Collider at Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois. The Tevatron was the world's highest-energy accelerator from 1983 until 2009, when its energy was surpassed by the Large Hadron Collider. The DØ experiment stopped taking data in 2011, when the Tevatron shut down, but data analysis is still ongoing. The DØ detector is preserved in Fermilab's DØ Assembly Building as part of a historical exhibit for public tours.

Gerald Stanford "Gerry" Guralnik was the Chancellor’s Professor of Physics at Brown University. In 1964 he co-discovered the Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson with C. R. Hagen and Tom Kibble (GHK). As part of Physical Review Letters' 50th anniversary celebration, the journal recognized this discovery as one of the milestone papers in PRL history. While widely considered to have authored the most complete of the early papers on the Higgs theory, GHK were controversially not included in the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics.

François, Baron Englert is a Belgian theoretical physicist and 2013 Nobel Prize laureate.

Carl Richard Hagen is a professor of particle physics at the University of Rochester. He is most noted for his contributions to the Standard Model and Symmetry breaking as well as the 1964 co-discovery of the Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson with Gerald Guralnik and Tom Kibble (GHK). As part of Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration, the journal recognized this discovery as one of the milestone papers in PRL history. While widely considered to have authored the most complete of the early papers on the Higgs theory, GHK were controversially not included in the 2013 Nobel Prize in Physics.

The Higgs boson, sometimes called the Higgs particle, is an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle physics produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, one of the fields in particle physics theory. In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a massive scalar boson with zero spin, even (positive) parity, no electric charge, and no colour charge that couples to mass. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately upon generation.

The 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers were written by three teams who proposed related but different approaches to explain how mass could arise in local gauge theories. These three papers were written by: Robert Brout and François Englert; Peter Higgs; and Gerald Guralnik, C. Richard Hagen, and Tom Kibble (GHK). They are credited with the theory of the Higgs mechanism and the prediction of the Higgs field and Higgs boson. Together, these provide a theoretical means by which Goldstone's theorem can be avoided. They showed how gauge bosons can acquire non-zero masses as a result of spontaneous symmetry breaking within gauge invariant models of the universe.

References

↑ F. Englert, R. Brout; Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters . 13 (9): 321–323. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..321E. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321 .
↑ P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters . 13 (16): 508–509. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..508H. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508 .
↑ G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble; Hagen; Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters . 13 (20): 585–587. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..585G. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ G.S. Guralnik (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A . 24 (14): 2601–2627. arXiv: 0907.3466 . Bibcode:2009IJMPA..24.2601G. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431. S2CID 16298371.
↑ T.W.B. Kibble (2009). "Englert–Brout–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism". Scholarpedia . 4 (1): 6441. Bibcode:2009SchpJ...4.6441K. doi: 10.4249/scholarpedia.6441 .
↑ M. Blume; S. Brown; Y. Millev (2008). "Letters from the past, a PRL retrospective (1964)". Physical Review Letters . Retrieved 30 January 2010.
↑ "J. J. Sakurai Prize Winners". American Physical Society. 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
↑ Wilczek, Frank (1999). "Quantum field theory". Reviews of Modern Physics. 71 (2): S85–S95. arXiv: hep-th/9803075 . Bibcode:1999RvMPS..71...85W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S85. S2CID 279980.
1 2 3 "Fermilab | Science | Particle Physics | Key Discoveries". www.fnal.gov. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
↑ Fukuda, Y.; et al. (Super-Kamiokande Collaboration) (24 August 1998). "Evidence for Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos". Physical Review Letters. 81 (8): 1562–1567. arXiv: hep-ex/9807003 . Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.1562F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1562.
↑ "New State of Matter created at CERN". CERN. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
↑ "Lene Hau". Physicscentral.com. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
↑ "RHIC Scientists Serve Up 'Perfect' Liquid". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
↑ "CERN experiments observe particle consistent with long-sought Higgs boson". CERN. Retrieved 22 May 2020.
↑ LHCb Collaboration (4 June 2014). "Observation of the Resonant Character of the Z ( 4430 ) − State". Physical Review Letters. 112 (22): 222002. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.222002. hdl: 2445/133080 . PMID 24949760. S2CID 904429.
↑ T2K Collaboration (10 February 2014). "Observation of Electron Neutrino Appearance in a Muon Neutrino Beam". Physical Review Letters. 112 (6): 061802. arXiv: 1311.4750 . Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112f1802A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.061802. hdl: 10044/1/20051 . PMID 24580687. S2CID 2586182.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
↑ OPERA Collaboration (28 October 2014). "Observation of tau neutrino appearance in the CNGS beam with the OPERA experiment". Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics. 2014 (10): 101C01. arXiv: 1407.3513 . doi: 10.1093/ptep/ptu132 .

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[1] F. Englert, R. Brout; Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters . 13 (9): 321–323. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..321E. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321 .

[Peter_W._Higgs_1964_508-509-2] P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters . 13 (16): 508–509. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..508H. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508 .

[3] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble; Hagen; Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters . 13 (20): 585–587. Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..585G. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[4] G.S. Guralnik (2009). "The History of the Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble development of the Theory of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Gauge Particles". International Journal of Modern Physics A . 24 (14): 2601–2627. arXiv: 0907.3466 . Bibcode:2009IJMPA..24.2601G. doi:10.1142/S0217751X09045431. S2CID 16298371.

[5] T.W.B. Kibble (2009). "Englert–Brout–Higgs–Guralnik–Hagen–Kibble mechanism". Scholarpedia . 4 (1): 6441. Bibcode:2009SchpJ...4.6441K. doi: 10.4249/scholarpedia.6441 .

[6] M. Blume; S. Brown; Y. Millev (2008). "Letters from the past, a PRL retrospective (1964)". Physical Review Letters . Retrieved 30 January 2010.

[7] "J. J. Sakurai Prize Winners". American Physical Society. 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2010.

[8] Wilczek, Frank (1999). "Quantum field theory". Reviews of Modern Physics. 71 (2): S85–S95. arXiv: hep-th/9803075 . Bibcode:1999RvMPS..71...85W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S85. S2CID 279980.

[fermilabDiscoveries-9] 1 2 3 "Fermilab | Science | Particle Physics | Key Discoveries". www.fnal.gov. Retrieved 26 August 2020.

[FukudaHayakawa1998-10] Fukuda, Y.; et al. (Super-Kamiokande Collaboration) (24 August 1998). "Evidence for Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos". Physical Review Letters. 81 (8): 1562–1567. arXiv: hep-ex/9807003 . Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.1562F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1562.

[11] "New State of Matter created at CERN". CERN. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

[12] "Lene Hau". Physicscentral.com. Retrieved 30 January 2013.

[13] "RHIC Scientists Serve Up 'Perfect' Liquid". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved 26 August 2020.

[14] "CERN experiments observe particle consistent with long-sought Higgs boson". CERN. Retrieved 22 May 2020.

[15] LHCb Collaboration (4 June 2014). "Observation of the Resonant Character of the Z ( 4430 ) − State". Physical Review Letters. 112 (22): 222002. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.222002. hdl: 2445/133080 . PMID 24949760. S2CID 904429.

[16] T2K Collaboration (10 February 2014). "Observation of Electron Neutrino Appearance in a Muon Neutrino Beam". Physical Review Letters. 112 (6): 061802. arXiv: 1311.4750 . Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112f1802A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.061802. hdl: 10044/1/20051 . PMID 24580687. S2CID 2586182.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[17] OPERA Collaboration (28 October 2014). "Observation of tau neutrino appearance in the CNGS beam with the OPERA experiment". Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics. 2014 (10): 101C01. arXiv: 1407.3513 . doi: 10.1093/ptep/ptu132 .

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