Woody plant encroachment

View of bush encroached land at the Waterberg Plateau Park in Otjozondjupa Region, Namibia

Woody plant encroachment (also called woody encroachment,bush encroachment, shrub encroachment, shrubification, woody plant proliferation, or bush thickening) is a natural phenomenon characterised by the area expansion and density increase of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species. ^[1] Woody encroachment is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause regime shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands. ^[2]

Causes include land-use intensification, such as overgrazing, as well as the suppression of wildfires and the reduction in numbers of wild herbivores. Elevated atmospheric CO₂ and global warming are found to be accelerating factors. To the contrary, land abandonment can equally lead to woody encroachment. ^[3]

The impact of woody plant encroachment is highly context specific. It can have severe negative impact on key ecosystem services, especially biodiversity, animal habitat, land productivity and groundwater recharge. Across rangelands, woody encroachment has led to significant declines in productivity, threatening the livelihoods of affected land users. Woody encroachment is often interpreted as a symptom of land degradation due to its negative impacts on key ecosystem services, but is also argued to be a form of natural succession. ^[4] Various countries actively counter woody encroachment, through adapted grassland management practices, controlled fire and mechanical bush thinning. ^[5] Such control measures can lead to trade-offs between climate change mitigation, biodiversity, combatting diversification and strengthening rural incomes. ^[4]

In some cases, areas affected by woody encroachment are classified as carbon sinks and form part of national greenhouse gas inventories. The carbon sequestration effects of woody plant encroachment are however highly context specific and still insufficiently researched. Depending on rainfall, temperature and soil type, among other factors, woody plant encroachment may either increase or decrease the carbon sequestration potential of a given ecosystem. In its Sixth Assessment Report of 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that woody encroachment may lead to slight increases in carbon, but at the same time mask underlying land degradation processes, especially in drylands. ^[6] The UNCCD has identified woody encroachment as a key contributor to rangeland loss globally. ^[7]

Ecological definition and etymology

Dense stand of bush on encroached rangeland

Woody plant encroachment is the increase in abundance of indigenous woody plants, such as shrubs and bushes, at the expense of herbaceous plants, grasses and forbs, in grasslands and shrublands. The term encroachment is thus used to describe how woody plants outcompete grasses during a given time, typically years or decades. ^{[8] [5]} Although such differentiation is not always applied, encroachment refers to the expanstion of woody plants into open areas and thickening refers to the increasing density in a given area, including sub-canopy cover plants. ^[9] This is in line with the meaning of the term encroachment, which is "the act of slowly covering more and more of an area". ^[10] Among earliest published notions of woody plant encroachment are publications of R. Staples in 1945, ^[11] O. West in 1947 ^[12] and Heinrich Walter in 1954. ^[13]

Although the terms are used interchangeably in some literature, woody plant encroachment is different from the spread of invasive species. As opposed to invasive species, which are deliberately or accidentally introduced species, encroacher species are indigenous to the respective ecosystem and their classification as encroachers depends on whether they outcompete other indigenous species in the same ecosystem over time. As opposed to alien plant invasion, woody plant encroachment is thus not defined by the mere presence of specific plant species, but by their ecological dynamics and changing dominance. ^{[14] [15]}

In some instances, woody plant encroachment is a type of secondary succession. This applies to cases of land abandonment, for example when previous agricultural land is abandoned and woody plants re-establish. ^[16] However, this is distinctly different from woody plant encroachment that occurs due to global drivers, e.g. increased carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, and unsustainable forms of land use intensification, such as overgrazing and fire suppression. Such drivers disrupt the ecological succession in a given grassland, specifically the balance between woody and herbaceous plants, and provide a competitive advantage to woody plants. ^[17] The resulting process that leads to an abundance of woody plants is sometimes considered an ecological regime shift (also ecological state transition) that can shift drylands from grassy dominated regimes towards woody dominated savannas. An increase in spatial variance is an early indicator of such regime shift. ^[18] Depending on the ecological and climatic conditions this shift can be a type of land degradation and desertification. ^[1] Progressing shrub encroachment is expected to feature a tipping point, beyond which the affected ecosystem will undergo substantial, self-perpetuating and often irreversible impact. ^[19]

Research into the type of woody plants that tend to become encroaching species is limited. Comparisons of encroaching and non-encroaching vachellia species found that encroaching species have a higher acquisition and competition for resources. Their canopy architecture is different and only encroaching tree species reduce the productivity of perennial vegetation. ^[20] In a comparison of Vachellia and Senegalia, Vachellia was found to be the more aggressive encroaher than Senegalia, growing faster and taller with thicker, animal-dispersed seeds, while Senegalia adapts to grass competition with denser roots and wind-dispersed seeds. ^[21]

By definition, woody plant encroachment occurs in grasslands. It is thus distinctly different from reforestation and afforestation. ^[22] However, there is a strong overlap between vegetation greening, as detected through satellite-derived vegetation indices, and woody plant encroachment. ^{[23] [24]} Studies show that vegetation can impoverisch despite a greening trend. ^[25]

Grasslands and forests, as well as grasslands and shrublands, can be alternative stable states of ecosystems, but empirical evidence of such bistability is still limited. ^{[26] [27] [18] [28]}

Global extent

Further information: List of ecoregions affected by woody plant encroachment

Depiction of terrestrial biomes around the world

The UNCCD identifies woody encroachment as a key contributor to rangeland loss globally. ^[7] Woody encroachment occurs on all continents, affecting and estimated total area of 500 million hectares (5 million square kilometres). ^[24] Its causes, extent and response measures differ and are highly context specific. ^{[29] [2]} Ecosystems affected by woody encroachment include closed shrublands, open shrublands, woody savannas, savannas, and grasslands. It can occur not only in tropical and subtropical climates, but also in temperate areas. ^[24] Woody encroachment occurs at 1 percent per decade in the Eurasian steppes, 10–20 percent in North America, 8 percent in South America, 2.4 percent in Africa and 1 percent in Australia. ^{[1] [30] [2]} In the European Alps, recorded expansion rates range from 0.6 percent to 16 percent per year. ^{[31] [32]}

Woody plant cover dynamics over sub-Saharan Africa 1986-2016

In Sub-Saharan Africa, woody vegetation cover has increased by 8% during the past three decades, mainly through woody plant encroachment. Overall, 750 million hectares of non-forest biomes experienced significant net gains in woody plant cover, which is more than three times the area that experienced net losses of woody vegetation. ^[33] In around 249 million hectares of African rangelands, long-term climate change was found to be the key driver of vegetation change. ^[34] Across Africa, 29 percent of all trees are found outside classified forests. In some countries, such as Namibia and Botswana, this percentage is above 80 percent and likely linked to woody encroachment. ^[35] In Southern Africa, woody encroachment has been identified as the main factor of greening, i.e. of the increase in vegetation cover detected through remote sensing. ^{[23] [36]} The future trend of biome change through woody encroachment in Africa bears great uncertainty. ^[37]

In Southern Europe an estimated 8 percent of land area has transitioned from grazing land to woody vegetation between 1950 and 2010. ^[38]

In the Eurasian Steppe, the largest grassland globally, climate change linked woody plant encroachment has been found to occur at around 1% per decade. ^[30]

In the Arctic Tundra, shrub plant cover has increased by 20 percent during the past 50 years. During the same time period, shrub and tree cover increased by 30 percent in the savannas of Latin America, Africa and Australia. ^[39]

Causes

Woody encroachment is assumed to have its origins at the beginning of Holocene and the start of warming, with tropical species expanding their ranges away from the equator into more temperate regions. But it has occurred at unparalleled rates since the mid-19th century. ^{[40] [41] [42]} As such, it is classified as a type of grassland degradation, which occurs through direct and indirect human impact during the Anthropocene. ^[43]

Susceptibility of ecosystems

There is evidence that some characteristics of ecosystem render them more susceptible to woody encroachment than others. For example, coarse-textured soils promote woody plant growth, while fine-textured soils limit it. Moreover, the likelihood of woody encroachment is influenced by soil moisture and soil nutrient availability, which is why it often occurs on downslope locations and coolers slopes. ^[44] The causes of woody encroachment differ significantly under different climatic conditions, e.g. between wet and dry savanna. ^[45]

Various factors have been found to contribute to the process of woody plant encroachment. Both local drivers (i.e. related to land use practices) as well as global drivers can cause woody plant encroachment. Due to its strong link to human induced causes, woody plant encroachment has been termed a social-ecological regime shift. ^[46] Research shows that both legacy effects of specific events, as well as plant traits can contribute to encroachment. ^[47] There is still insufficient research on the interplay between the various positive and negative feedback loops in encroaching ecosystems. ^[48]

Land use

Where land is abandoned, and respective anthropogenic pressures cease, a rapid spread of native bush plants is often observed. This is for example the case in former forest areas in the Alps that had been converted to agricultural land and later abandoned. In Southern Europe encroachment is thus linked to rural exodus. ^[49] In such instances, land use intensification, e.g. increased grazing pressure, is found to be effective against woody encroachment. ^[50] More recently, it is observed that land use cessation is not the only driver of woody encroachment in aforementioned regions, since the phenomenon occurs also where land continued to be used for agricultural purposes. ^[51]

In other regions land use intensification is the main cause of woody plant encroachment. This is due to the interrelated fragmentation of landscapes and the loss of historical disturbance regimes, mainly in the following forms:

• Overgrazing: In the context of land intensification, a frequently cited cause of woody plant encroachment is overgrazing, commonly a result of overstocking and fencing of farms, as well as the lack of animal rotation and land resting periods. Overgrazing plays an especially strong role in mesic grasslands, where bushes can expand easily when gaining a competitive advantage over grasses, while woody encroachment is less predictable in xeric shrublands. ^[52] Seed dispersal through animals is found to be a contributing factor to woody encroachment. ^{[53] [54] [55]} While overgrazing has in the past frequently been found to be a main driver of woody encroachment, it is observed that woody encroachment continues in the respective areas even after grazing reduced or even ceases. ^[56]
• Absence of large mammals: linked to the introduction of rangeland agriculture as well as unsustainable hunting practices, the reduction of large mammals such as elephant and rhino (in Africa) or elk (in Northern America) is a contributing factor to woody encroachment. ^{[1] [57] [58]}
• Fire suppression: A connected cause for woody plant encroachment is the reduction in the frequency of wildfires that would occur naturally, but are suppressed in frequency and intensity by land owners due to the associated risks and the fragmentation of landscapes. ^{[59] [60] [61] [62]} When the lack of fire reduces tree mortality and consequently the grass fuel load for fire decreases, a negative feedback loop occurs. ^{[63] [19]} It has been estimated that from a threshold of 40% canopy cover, surface grass fires are rare. ^{[64] [65]} At intermediate rainfall, fire can be the main determinant between the development of savannas and forests. ^{[66] [67]} In experiments in the United States it was determined that annual fires lead to the maintenance of grasslands, 4-year burn intervals lead to the establishment of shrubby habitats and 20-year burn intervals lead to severe woody plant encroachment. ^[68] Moreover, the reduction of browsing by herbivores, e.g. when natural habitats are transformed into agricultural land, fosters woody plant encroachment, as bushes grow undisturbed and with increasing size also become less susceptible to fire. Already one decade of land management change, such as the exclusion of fires and overgrazing, can lead to severe woody plant encroachment. ^[69] The global increase in atmospheric CO₂ contributes to the reduction of wildfires, as it decreases flammability of grass. ^[70]
• Competition for water: a positive feedback loop occurs when encroaching woody species reduce the plant available water, providing a disadvantage for grasses, promoting further woody encroachment. ^[71] According to the two-layer theory, grasses use topsoil moisture, while woody plants predominantly use subsoil moisture. If grasses are reduced by overgrazing, this reduces their water intake and allows more water to penetrate into the subsoil for the use by woody plants. ^{[13] [72]} Moreover, research suggests that bush roots are less vulnerable to water stress than grass roots during droughts. ^[73]
• Population pressure: population pressure can be the cause for woody plant encroachment, when large trees are cut as building material or fuel. This stimulates coppice growth and results in an increase of the shrub vegetation.
• Ecosystem restoration: active interventions and changes of ecosystem, such as the creation of wetlands, can trigger woody encroachment. ^[74]

Climate change

See also: Effects of climate change on biomes

While changes in land management are often seen as the main driver of woody encroachment, some studies suggest that global drivers increase woody vegetation regardless of land management practices. ^{[75] [8]} For example, a representative sampling of South African grasslands, woody plant encroachment was found to be the same under different land uses and different rainfall amounts, suggesting that climate change may be the primary driver of the encroachment. ^{[57] [76]} Once established, shrubs suppress grass growth, perpetuating woody plant encroachment. ^[77] Suitable habitat for key encroacher species is expected to increase under climate change. ^[78]

Predominant global drivers include the following:

• Atmospheric CO₂: climate change has been found to be a cause or accelerating factor for woody plant encroachment. ^{[79] [80]} This is because increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations fosters the growth of woody plants. Woody plants with C₃ photosynthetic pathway thrive under high CO₂ concentrations, as opposed to grasses with C₄ photosynthetic pathway. ^{[81] [82] [83] [84] [85]} Also tolerance to herbivory is found to be enhanced during the plants' recruitment stage under increased CO₂ concentrations. ^[86]
• Rainfall patterns: a frequently cited theory is the state-and-transition model. This model outlines how rainfall and its variability is the key driver of vegetation growth and its composition, bringing about woody plant encroachment under certain rainfall patterns. For example, if rainfall intensity increases, deep soil water typically increases, which in turn benefits bushes more than grasses. ^{[87] [88]} Both the amount of rainfall and its timing are important and distinct factors. ^[89] Changes in precipitation can foster woody encroachment. Increased precipitation can foster the establishment, growth and density of woody plants. Also decreased precipitation can promote woody plant encroachment, as it fosters the shift from mesophytic grasses to xerophytic shrubs. ^[90]
• Global warming: woody encroachment correlates to warming in the tundra, while it is linked to increased rainfall in the savanna. ^[39] Species such as Vachellia sieberiana thrive under warming irrespective of the competition with grasses. ^[91] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its report "Global warming of 1.5°C" states that high-latitude tundra and boreal forests are at particular risk of climate change-induced degradation, with a high likelihood of shrub encroachment under continued warming. ^[92] In other ecosystems, such as sub-Sahara grasslands, rising aridity may cause woody plants to be more prone to hydraulic failure. ^{[89] [93]}
• Droughts: droughts contribute to woody plant encroachment, if they reduce the perennial grass cover and the latter recovers slowly, providing shrubs with a competitive advantage with regard to the acquisition of deep-soil water. ^{[94] [95]} Drought, in combination with high levels of grazing pressure, can function as the tipping point for an ecosystem, causing woody encroachment. ^[48]

Impact on grassland ecosystems

Woody encroachment constitutes a major global shift in plant composition, structure and function, with far-reaching impact on the affected ecosystems. The accelerating rate of woody encroachment across grasslands globally may lead to an abrupt decline of this biome type, owing to human impact. ^[96] For example, the Great Plains biome is found to be at the brink of collapse due to woody encroachment, with 62% of Northern American grassland lost to date. ^{[58] [97] [98]}

Encroachment is commonly identified as a form of land degradation, with severe negative consequences for various ecosystem services, such as biodiversity, groundwater recharge, carbon storage capacity and herbivore carrying capacity. Nevertheless, negative impact is not universal. Impacts are dependent on species, scale and environmental context factors. Woody encroachment can have significant positive impacts on ecosystem services as well. ^{[99] [100]} Research suggests that ecosystem multifunctionality increases under woody encroachment. ^{[4] [101]}

Affected ecosystem services fall into the category of provisioning (e.g. forage value), regulating (e.g. hydrological regulation, soil stability) and supporting (nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, primary production). ^[102] There is a need for ecosystem-specific assessments and responses to woody encroachment. ^[5] Generally, the following context factors determine the ecological impact of woody encroachment: ^[103]

• Prevailing land use: While positive ecological effects can occur in unmanaged landscapes or certain land-uses, negative ecological effects are observed especially in landscapes used for livestock grazing. ^{[5] [104]}
• Density of woody plants: Plant diversity and ecosystem multifunctionality typically peaks at intermediate levels of woody cover and high woody covers generally have negative impacts. ^{[105] [106] [5]}
• Environmental conditions: Arid ecosystems show more negative responses to woody encroachment than non-arid ecosystems. ^{[107] [105] [24]} In arid ecosystems woody encroachment is sometimes regarded as a form of land degradation and an expression of desertification ^[108] Due to its ambiguous role in these dry ecosystems, it has been termed "green desertification". ^[109] To the contrary, in ecosystems of the Mediterranean region and in Alpine grasslands, encroachment can enhance ecosystem functionality and reverse desertification trends. ^{[110] [111]} A key difference is that during woody encroachment the herbaceous cover in the inter-canopy zones can remain intact, while during desertification these zones degrade and turn into bare soil devoid of organic matter. ^[112]

Biodiversity

Relationship between bush cover and animal diversity in Kalahari savanna rangelands in South Africa

Woody encroachment causes widespread declines in the diversity of herbaceous vegetation through competition for water, light, and nutrients ^{[40] [113]} Bush expands at the direct expense of other plant species, potentially reducing plant diversity and animal habitats. ^[114] Woody encroachment impacts animal diversity by altering the structural diversity of vegetation, which affects habitat quality and species interactions. While moderate bush cover increases diversity, excessive encroachment leads to habitat loss and reduced niches, negatively impacting species such as insects, spiders, mammals, birds, and reptiles. These changes can cascade through ecosystems, affecting herbivores and top predators, altering behaviors like hunting efficiency and foraging strategies. ^{[115] [116]} These effects are context specific, a meta-analysis of 43 publications of the time period 1978 to 2016 found that woody plant encroachment has distinct negative effects on species richness and total abundance in Africa, especially on mammals and herpetofauna, but positive effects in North America. ^[117] However, in context specific analyses also in Northern America negative effects are observed. For example, piñon-juniper encroachment threatens up to 350 sagebrush-associated plant and animal species in the US. ^[118] A study of 30 years of woody encroachment in Brazil found a significant decline of species richness by 27%. ^[119] Shrub encroachment may result in increased vertebrate species abundance and richness. However, these encroached habitats and their species assemblages may become more sensitive to droughts. ^{[6] [120]} As encroachment is not a stable state, but characterised by changing bush densities, it is important to identify how different density threshold affect plant and animal species. ^[121]

Cheetah habitat can be reduced by woody plant encroachment

Evidence of biodiversity losses includes the following:

• Grasses: encroachment results in substantial loss of herbaceous diversity, with a loss of richness that is not replaced. ^[122] Studies in South Africa have found that grass richness reduces by more than 50% under intense woody plant encroachment. ^[123] In North America, a meta-analysis of 29 studies from 13 different grassland communities found that species richness declined by an average of 45% under woody plant encroachment. ^[124] Rare species and those with lower stature, are at risk of going extinct. ^[125] Among the severely affected flora is the small white lady's slipper. ^[126] Generally, large bushes are found to coexist with the herbaceous layer, while smaller shrubs compete with it. ^[127] Increased shade is a contributing factor to the reduction of grass abundance and diversity. ^[128]
• Mammals: woody plant encroachment has a significant impact on herbivore assemblage structure and can lead to the displacement of herbivores and other mammal types that prefer open areas. ^[129] Among other factors, predation success of various mammals is negatively impacted by bush encroachment. ^[130] Among the species found to lose habitat in areas affected by woody plant encroachment are cats such as cheetah, ^{[131] [132] [130]} white-footed fox ^[133] , as well as antelopes such as the Common tsessebe, Hirola and plains zebra. ^{[134] [135]} In Latin America the habitat of the almost extinct Guanaco is threatened by woody encroachment. ^[136] In some rangelands, woody plant encroachment is associated with a decline in wildlife grazing capacity of up to 80%. ^[137] Among rodent species, those specialists on grasslands typically decline in abundance under woody encroachment, while those specialised on forests might increase in abundance. ^[138] Also burrowing mammals can lose habitat when woody encroachment occurs. ^[139]
• Birds: the impact of woody encroachment on bird species must be differentiated between shrub-associated species and grassland specialists. Studies find that shrub-associated species benefit from woody encroachment up to a certain threshold of woody cover (e.g. 22 percent in a study conducted in North America), while grassland specialist populations decline. ^{[140] [141] [142]} Experiments in Namibia have shown that foraging birds, such as the endangered Cape vulture, avoid encroachment levels above 2,600 woody plants per hectare. ^[143] In Southern Africa, woody encroachment drives population decline of 20% of the common open ecosystem bird species, on average at a rate of 50% population decline over fifty years. ^[144] In North American grasslands, bird population decline as a result of woody encroachment has been identified as a critical conservation concern. ^{[145] [146]} Among the birds negatively affected by woody plant encroachment are the Secretarybird, ^[147] Grey go-away-bird, Marico sunbird, lesser prairie chicken, ^{[148] [149]} Greater sage-grouse, ^[118] Archer's lark, ^{[150] [151]} Northern bobwhite, ^[152] Kori bustard, ^[153] and Yellow cardinal. ^[154]
• Insects: woody plant encroachment is linked to species loss or reduction in species richness of insects with preference for open habitats. ^[155] Affected species include butterfly, ^[156] ant ^[119] and beetle. ^[121]

Vegetation structure

Encroachment often creates connected bare plant interspaces where water and wind erosion can occur. ^[157]

Soil quality

Soil quality under woody encroachment in dryland ecosystems is determined by a combination of plant cover, precipitation, soil physiochemical characteristics, and topographic variables. ^[158] Encroachment has a significant impact on soil bacterial communities. ^[159]

Soil quality can decline significantly in arid and semi-arid regions under woody encroachment, manifesting though reduced soil moisture levels, nutrient availability and microbial activity. This drives soil drought conditions and decreases perennial herbaceous plants, while increasing bare ground. ^{[160] [161] [162]} Encroachment leads to plant communities developing tougher, nutrient-poor tissues, which makes the soil more acidic, causes organic matter to build up, and reduces phosphorus levels. ^[163]

To the contrary, in Mediterranean and very humind climates, woody encroachment often leads to enhanced soil quality by increasing concentrations of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, especially in the topsoil. ^[164]

Groundwater recharge and soil moisture

Water balance

While water loss is common in closed canopy woodlands (i.e. sub-humid conditions with increased evapotranspiration) in semiarid and arid ecosystems, recharge can also improve under encroachment, provided there is good ecohydrological connectivity of the respective landscape. Ecohydrological connectivity is suggested as a unifying framework for the understanding of different groundwater impacts under encroachment. ^{[165] [166]}

Woody plant encroachment is frequently linked to reduced groundwater recharge, based on evidence that bushes consume significantly more rainwater than grasses and encroachment alters water streamflow. ^[167] Woody encroachment generally leads to root elongation in the soil ^[168] and the downward movement of water is hindered by increased root density and depth. ^{[169] [170] [171] [172]} The impact on groundwater recharge differs between sandstone bedrocks and karst regions as well as between deep and shallow soils. ^[169]

Besides groundwater recharge, woody encroachment increases tree transpiration and evaporation of soil moisture, due to increased canopy cover. ^{[173] [174] [175]} Woody encroachment leads to the drying up of stream flows. ^{[176] [177]} Further, woody plant control can effectively improve the connectivity of water resources. ^[178] Although this is strongly context dependent, bush control can be an effective method for the improvement of groundwater recharge. ^[179]

There is limited understanding how hydrological cycles through woody encroachment affect carbon influx and efflux, with both carbon gains and losses possible. ^[167] Moreover, there is evidence that woody encroachment enhances bedrock weathering, with unclear consequences for soil erosion and subsurface water flows. ^[180]

However, concrete experience with changes in groundwater recharge is largely based on anecdotal evidence or regionally and temporally limited research projects. ^[181] Applied research, assessing the water availability after brush removal, was conducted in Texas, US, showing an increase in water availability in all cases. ^{[182] [183]} Studies in the United States moreover find that dense encroachment with Juniperus virginiana is capable of transpiring nearly all rainfall, thus altering groundwater recharge significantly. ^{[184] [185]} An exception is shrub encroachment on slopes, where groundwater recharge can increase under encroachment. ^{[71] [186]} Further studies in the US indicate that also stream flow is significantly hampered by woody plant encroachment, with the associated risk of higher pollutant concentrations. ^{[187] [188]}

Studies in South Africa have shown that approximately 44% of rainfall is captured by woody canopies and evaporated back in to the atmosphere under woody encroachment. This effect is strongest with fine-leaved species and in events of lower rainfall sizes and intensities. It was found that up to 10% less rain enters the soil overall under woody encroachment. ^[189] A meta-analysis of studies in South Africa further finds that woody encroachment has low water loss effect in areas with limited rainfall. ^[190] Streamflow can increase after targeted removal of invasive and encroaching species, as showcased in South Africa. ^[191]

Carbon sequestration

The impact of bush control on the carbon sequestration and storage capacity of the respective ecosystems is an important management consideration. ^[192] Against the background of global efforts to mitigate climate change, the carbon sequestration and storage capacity of natural ecosystems receives increasing attention. Grasslands constitute 40% of Earth's natural vegetation ^[193] and hold a considerable amount of the global Soil Organic Carbon. ^[194] Shifts in plant species composition and ecosystem structure, especially through woody encroachment, lead to significant uncertainty in predicting carbon cycling in grasslands. ^{[195] [196]} Research on the changes to carbon sequestration under woody plant encroachment and its control is still insufficient. ^{[197] [198]} The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that woody plant encroachment generally leads to increased aboveground woody carbon, while below-ground carbon changes depend on annual rainfall and soil type. The IPCC points out that carbon stock changes under bush encroachment have been studied in Australia, Southern Africa and North America, but no global assessment has been done to date. ^[6]

Total ecosystem carbon: considering above-ground biomass alone, encroachment can be seen as a carbon sink. However, considering the losses in the herbaceous layer as well as changes in soil organic carbon, the quantification of terrestrial carbon pools and fluxes becomes more complex and context specific. Changes to carbon sequestration and storage need to be determined for each respective ecosystem and holistically, i.e. considering both above-ground and below-ground carbon storage. Generally, elevated CO₂ leads to increased woody growth, which implies that the woody plants increase their uptake of nutrients from the soil, reducing the soil's capacity to store carbon. In contrast, grasses increase little biomass above-ground, but contribute significantly to below-ground carbon sequestration. ^{[199] [200]} It is found that above-ground carbon gains can be completely offset by below-ground carbon losses during encroachment. ^{[201] [202] [203] [204] [205] [206]} It is generally observed that carbon increases overall in wetter ecosystems under encroachment and can reduce in arid ecosystems under encroachment. ^{[1] [207]} Some studies find that carbon sequestration can increase for a number of years under woody encroachment, while the magnitude of this increase is highly dependent on annual rainfall. It is found that woody encroachment has little impact on sequestration potential in dry areas with less than 400mm in precipitation. ^{[203] [1] [208] [209]} This implies that the positive carbon effect of woody plant encroachment may decrease with progressing climate change, particularly in ecosystems that are forecasted to experience decreased precipitation and increased temperature. ^[210] Woody encroachment is further linked to fluvial erosion that in turn leads to the loss of previously stabilised organic carbon from legacy grasslands. ^[211] Moreover, encroached ecosystems are more likely than open grasslands to lose carbon during droughts. ^[212] Among the ecosystems expected to lose carbon storage under woody encroachment is the tundra. ^[213]

Factors relevant for comparisons of carbon sequestration potentials between encroached and non-encroached grasslands include the following: above-ground net primary production (ANPP), below-ground net primary production (BNPP), photosynthesis rates, plant respiration rates, plant litter decomposition rates, soil microbacterial activity. Also plant biodiversity is an important indicator, as plant diversity contributes more to soil organic carbon than the quantity of organic matter. ^[214]

• Above-ground carbon: woody plant encroachment implies an increase in woody plants, in most cases at the expense of grasses. Considering that woody plants have a longer lifespan and generally also more mass, woody plant encroachment typically implies an increase in above-ground carbon storage through biosequestration. Studies however find that this is dependent on climatic conditions, with aboveground carbon pools decreasing under woody encroachment where mean annual precipitation is less than 330mm and increasing where precipitation is higher. ^{[215] [107]} A contributing factor is that woody encroachment decreases above-ground plant primary production in mesic ecosystems. ^[107]
• Below-ground carbon: globally, the soil organic carbon pool is twice as large as the plant carbon pool, making its quantification essential. Soil organic carbon makes out two-thirds of total soil carbon. ^[216] Comparisons of grasslands, shrublands and forests show that forest and shrubland hold more above-ground carbon, while grasslands boast more soil carbon. ^[217] Generally, herbaceous plants allocate more biomass below-ground than woody plants. ^{[218] [210]} The impact of woody encroachment on soil organic carbon is found to be dependent on rainfall, with soil organic carbon increasing in dry ecosystems and decreasing in mesic ecosystems under encroachment. ^{[219] [206] [198] [220]} Degradation of grasslands has in some areas led to the loss of up to 40% of the ecosystem's soil organic carbon. ^[216] An important factor is that under woody plant encroachment the increased photosynthetic potential is largely offset by increased plant respiration and respective carbon losses. ^[221] In tropical savanna soils, most soil organic carbon is derived from grass, not woody plants. ^{[222] [223]} For example, research in South Africa found that soil organic carbon from tree input matched grass-derived soil organic carbon only after 70 years of fire exclusion, challenging the view that increased tree density leads to SOC improvements. ^[224] Contributing factors vary broadly in different settings, as is also evident in the role of litter. Generally, organic carbon in the topsoil can benefit from increased litter under encroachment. ^{[225] [226]} However, in South Africa woody plant encroachment was found to slow decomposition rates of litter, which took twice the time to decay under woody plant encroachment compared to open savannas. ^[227]

Soil organic carbon changes need to be viewed at landscape level, as there are differences between under canopy and inter canopy processes. When a landscape becomes increasingly encroached and the remaining open grassland patches are overgrazed as a result, soil organic carbon may decrease. ^{[228] [99]}

In pastoral lands of Ethiopia, woody plant encroachment was found to have little to no positive effect on soil organic carbon and woody encroachment restriction was the most effective way to maintain soil organic carbon. ^[229] In the United States, substantial soil organic carbon sequestration was observed in deeper portions of the soil, following woody encroachment. ^[230]

An important factor is that rooting depth increases with woody encroachment, on average by 38 cm and up to 65 cm. ^[231] Deeper rooting may promote the accumulation of organic carbon in the deep soil layers, but at the same time also lead to a positive priming effect, i.e. the stimulation of microbial activity and decomposition of organic matter. ^[232] The trajectory of deep soil carbon under woody encroachment will depend on the balance of increased SOC accumulation and priming losses. ^[233]

A meta-analysis of 142 studies found that shrub encroachment alters soil organic carbon (0–50 cm), with changes ranging between -50 and 300 percent. Soil organic carbon increased under the following conditions: semi-arid and humid regions, encroachment by leguminous shrubs as opposed to non-legumes, sandy soils as opposed to clay soils. The study further concludes that shrub encroachment has a mainly positive effect on top-soil organic carbon content, with significant variations among climate, soil and shrub types. ^[234] There is a lack of standardised methodologies to assess the effect of woody encroachment on soil organic carbon. ^[198]

Land productivity and rural livelihoods

Woody plant encroachment directly impacts land productivity, as widely documented in the context of animal carrying capacity. In the western United States, 25% of rangelands experience sustained tree cover expansion, with estimated losses for agricultural producers of $5 billion since 1990. The forage lost annually is estimated to be equal to the consumption of 1.5 million bison or 1.9 million cattle. ^[235] In Northern America, each 1 percent of increase in woody cover implies a reduction of 0.6 to 1.6 cattle per 100 hectares. ^[236] In the Southern African country Namibia it is assumed that agricultural carrying capacity of rangelands has declined by two-thirds due to woody plant encroachment. ^[237] In East Africa there is evidence that an increase of bush cover of 10 percent reduced grazing by 7 percent, with land becoming unusable as rangeland when the bush cover reaches 90 percent. ^{[238] [239]}

Woody encroachment is often considered to have a negative impact on rural livelihoods. In Africa, 21% of the population depend on rangeland resources. Woody encroachment typically leads to an increase in less palatable woody species at the expense of palatable grasses. This reduces the resources available to pastoral communities and rangeland based agriculture at large. ^[34] Woody encroachment has negative consequences on livelihoods especially arid areas, ^[103] which support a third of the world population's livelihoods. ^{[240] [241]} Woody plant encroachment is expected to lead to large scale biome changes in Africa and experts argue that climate change adaptation strategies need to be flexible to adjust to this process. ^[242] In South Africa, the shrub Seriphium plumosum is commonly referred to as "bankrupt bush" due to its association with farm productivity reductions of up to 80%. ^{[243] [244]}

Tourism potential

Touristic potential of land is found to decline in areas with heavy woody plant encroachment, with visitors shifting to less encroached areas and better visibility of wildlife. ^{[245] [246]}

Others

In the United States, woody encroachment has been linked to the spread of tick-borne pathogens and respective disease risk for humans and animals. ^{[247] [248]} In the Arctic tundra, shrub encroachment can reduce cloudiness and contribute to a raise in temperature. ^[249] In Northern America, significant increases in temperature and rainfall were linked to woody encroachment, amounting to values up to 214mm and 0.68 °C respectively. This is caused by a decrease in surface albedo. ^[250]

Targeted bush control in combination with the protection of larger trees is found to improve scavenging that regulates disease processes, alters species distributions, and influences nutrient cycling. ^[251]

Studies of woody plant encroachment in the Brazilian savanna suggest that encroachment renders affected ecosystems more vulnerable to climate change. ^[252]

Quantification and monitoring

There is no static definition of what is considered woody encroachment, especially when encroachment of indigenous plants occurs. While it is simple to determine vegetation trends, e.g. an increase in woody plants over time, it is more complex to determine thresholds beyond which an area is to be considered as encroached. Various definitions as well as quantification and mapping methods have been developed.

Data collection can typically involve mapping and morphological characterisation of trees and shrubs, phytosociological survey of permanent plots, grid-point intercept survey of permanent plots, line-intercept surveys along transects as well as allometric shrub measurements along transects. ^[253] In Southern Africa, the BECVOL method (Biomass Estimates from Canopy Volume) finds frequent application. It determines Evapotranspiration Tree Equivalents (ETTE) per selected area. This data is used for comparison against climatic factors, especially annual rainfall, to determine whether the respective area has a higher number of woody plants than is considered sustainable. ^[114]

Remote sensing imagery is increasingly used to determine the extent of woody encroachment. ^[254] Limitations of this methodology include difficulties to distinguish species and the inability to detect small shrubs. ^{[255] [256]} Moreover, UAV (drone) based multispectral data and Lidar data are frequently used to quantify woody encroachment. ^{[257] [258] [259]} The combination of colour-infrared aerial imagery and support-vector machines classification, can lead to high accuracy in identifying shrubs. ^[260] The probability of woody plant encroachment for the African continent has been mapped using GIS data and the variables precipitation, soil moisture and cattle density. ^[261] An exclusive reliance on remote sensing data bears the risk of wrongly interpreting woody plant encroachment, e.g. as beneficial vegetation greening. ^[262] Hyperspectral vegetation indices (HVIs) can be developed to accurately separate shrub cover from green vegetation. ^[263] Google Earth images have been successfully used to analyse woody encroachment in South Africa. ^[264] In Namibia, the so-called Bush Information System is based on synthetic-aperture radar satellite data. ^[265] Satellite remote sensing is used to determine the effect of targeted plant removal in encroached areas. ^[266]

Increasingly, machine-learning techniques and applications based on artificial intelligence are used to investigate woody plant encroachment. ^[267] Among others, there has been research on computer aided analysis of visual images taken from a driving vehicle. ^[268]

Rephotography is found to be an effective tool for the monitoring of vegetation change, including woody encroachment ^{[269] [270]} and forms the basis of various encroachment assessments. ^[76]

Methods to overcome the limited availability of photographic evidence or written records include the assessment of pollen records. In a recent application, vegetation cover of the past 130 years in a woody plant encroachment area in Namibia was established. ^[271]

Vegetation mapping tools developed for the use by individual land users and support organisations include the American Rangeland Analysis Platform, ^{[272] [273]} and the Namibian Biomass Quantification Tool. ^[274]

Restoration

Landscape in Namibia with land after selective bush thinning (foreground) and severe bush encroachment (background)

Goats can function as a natural measure against woody plant encroachment or the re-establishment of seedlings after bush thinning.

Brush control is the active management of the density of woody species in grasslands. Although woody encroachment in many instances is a direct consequence of unsustainable management practices, it is unlikely that the introduction of more sustainable practices alone (e.g. the management of fire and grazing regimes) will achieve to restore already degraded areas. Encroached grasslands can constitute a stable state, meaning that without intervention the vegetation will not return to its previous composition. ^[275]

For decisions on appropriate control measures, it is essential that both local and global drivers of woody encroachment, as well as their interaction, are understood. ^[276] Restoration must be approached as a set of interventions that iteratively move a degraded ecosystem to a new system state. ^[277] Responsive measures, such as mechanical removal, are needed to restore a different balance between woody and herbaceous plants. ^[278] Once a high woody plant density is established, woody plants contribute to the soil seed bank more than grasses ^[279] and the lack of grasses presents less fuel for fires, reducing their intensity. ^[63] This perpetuates woody encroachment and necessitates intervention, if the encroached state is undesirable for the functions and use of the respective ecosystems. Most interventions constitute a selective thinning of bush densities, although in some contexts also repeat clear-cutting has shown to effectively restore diversity of typical savanna species. ^{[280] [281]} In decision making on which woody species to thin out and which to retain, structural and functional traits of the species play a key role. ^[282] Bush control measures must go hand in hand with grazing management, as both are crucial factors influencing the future state of the respective ecosystems. ^[283] State and Transition Models have been developed to provide management support to land users, capturing ecosystem complexities beyond succession, but their applicability is still limited. ^{[284] [285]}

The restoration of degraded grasslands can bring about a wide range of ecosystem service improvements. ^[286] It can therewith also strengthen the drought resilience of affected ecosystems. ^[94] Bush control can lead to biodiversity improvements regardless of the predominant land use. ^[287]

Types of interventions

The term bush control, or brush management, refers to actions that are targeted at controlling the density and composition of bushes and shrubs in a given area. Such measures either serve to reduce risks associated with woody plant encroachment, such as wildfires, or to rehabilitate the affected ecosystems. It is widely accepted that encroaching indigenous woody plants are to be reduced in numbers, but not eradicated. This is critical as these plants provide important functions in the respective ecosystems, e.g. they serve as habitat for animals. ^{[288] [289]} Efforts to counter woody plant encroachment fall into the scientific field of restoration ecology and are primarily guided by ecological parameters, followed by economic indicators.

Three different categories of control measures can be distinguished:

• Preventive measures: application of proven good management practices to prevent the excessive growth of woody species, e.g. through appropriate stocking rates and rotational grazing in the case of rangeland agriculture. ^[290] It is generally assumed that preventative measures are a more cost-effective method to combat woody encroachment than treating ecosystems once degradation has occurred. ^[291] Certain land uses and animal species can aid in preventing woody plant encroachment, for example elephants. ^{[59] [292]} Research on degradation tipping points, suggests soil organic carbon and carbon isotopes as early-warning indicators in potentially encroached areas. ^[293]
• Responsive measures: the reduction of bush densities through targeted bush harvesting or other forms of removal (bush thinning).
• Maintenance measures: repeated or continuous measures of maintaining the bush density and composition that has been established through bush thinning. ^{[152] [294]}

There is an increasing focus on the carbon sequestration impact, which differs among control measures. The application of chemicals, for example, can lead to higher carbon losses than mechanical shrub thinning. ^[295]

Control measures

Fire fighter administering prescribed fire as management tool to remove woody encroachment near Mt. Adams, Washington, US

Natural bush control

The administration of controlled fires is a commonly applied method of bush control. ^{[60] [296] [297] [298] [299]} The relation between prescribed fire and tree mortality, is subject of ongoing research. ^[300] The success rate of prescribed fires differs depending on the season during which it is applied. ^{[301] [302] [303] [304]} In some cases, fire treatment slows down woody encroachment, but is unsuccessful in reversing it. ^[28] Optimal fire management may vary depending on vegetation community, land use as well as frequency and timing of fires. ^[305] Controlled fires are not only a tool to manage biodiversity, but can also be used to reduce GHG emissions by shifting fire seasonality and reducing fire intensity. ^[306]

Fire was found to be especially effective in reducing bush densities, when coupled with the natural event of droughts. ^[307] Also the combination of fire and browsers, called pyric herbivory, is shown to have positive restoration effects. ^{[308] [309]} Cattle can in part substitute for large herbivores. ^[310] Moreover, fires have the advantage that they consume the seeds of woody plants in the grass layer before germination, therefore reducing the grasslands sensitivity to encroachment. ^[311] Prerequisite for successful bush control through fire is sufficient fuel load, thus fires have a higher effectiveness in areas where sufficient grass is available. Furthermore, fires must be administered regularly to address re-growth. Bush control through fire is found to be more effective when applying a range of fire intensities over time. ^[312] Fire primarily affects shrubs at early growth stages, causing less damage on plants of larger hight and crown diameter. ^[313] Fuel load and therewith the efficacy of fires for bush control can reduce due to the presence of herbivores. ^[314]

Long-term research in the South African savanna found that high-intensity fire did reduce encroachment in the short-term, but not in the mid-term. ^{[315] [316]} In a cross-continental collaboration between South Africa and the US, a synthesis on the experience with fire as a bush control method was published. ^[317]

Rewilding ecosystems with historic herbivores can further contribute to bush control. ^{[318] [319]} The presence of herbivores contributes to woody suppression, especially at the early demographic stages. ^[320]

Variable livestock grazing can be used to reduce woody encroachment as well as re-growth after bush thinning. A well-documented approach is the introduction of larger herds of goats that feed on the wood plants and thereby limiting their growth. ^{[321] [322] [323] [324] [325]} There is evidence that some rural farming communities have used small ruminants, like goats, to prevent woody plant encroachment for decades. ^[326] Further, intensive rotational grazing, with resting periods for pasture recovery, can be a tool to limit woody encroachment. ^[327] Overall, the role of targeted grazing systems as biodiversity conservation tool is subject of ongoing research. ^[328]

Chemical bush control

Wood densities are frequently controlled through the application of herbicides, in particular arboricides. Commonly, applied herbicides are based on the active ingredients tebuthiuron, ethidimuron, bromacil and picloram. ^[329] In East Africa, first comprehensive experiments on the effectiveness of such bush control date back to 1958–1960. ^[330] There is however evidence that applied chemicals can have negative long-term effects and effectively prevent the recruitment of desired grasses and other plants. ^[331] The application of non-species-specific herbicides is found to result in lower species richness than the application of species-specific herbicides. ^[332] Further, arboricide application can negatively affect insect populations and arthropods, which in turn is a threat for bird populations. ^[333] Scientific trials in South Africa showed that the application of herbicides has the highest success rate when coupled with mechanical bush thinning. ^[332]

Mechanical bush control

Worker in protective gear uses a chainsaw to selectively fell and cut bushes

Cutting or harvesting of bushes and shrubs with manual or mechanised equipment. Mechanical cutting of woody plants is followed by stem-burning, fire or browsing to suppress re-growth. ^[334] Some studies find that mechanical bush control is more sustainable than controlled fires, because burning leads to deeper soil degradation and faster recovering of shrubs. ^[335] Bush that is mechanically harvested is often burnt on piles, ^[336] but can also serve as feedstock for value addition, including firewood, charcoal, animal feed, ^{[337] [338]} energy and construction material. Mechanical cutting is found to be effective, but requires repeat application. ^{[339] [340] [341] [280]} When woody branches are left to cover the degraded soil, this method is called brush packing. ^[342] Some forms of mechanical woody plant removal involve uprooting, which tends to lead to better results in terms of the restoration of the grass layer, but can have disadvantages for chemical and microbiological soil properties. ^[343]

Economics

As woody encroachment is often widespread and most rehabilitation efforts costly, funding is a key constraint. In the case of mechanical woody plant thinning, i.e. the selective harvesting, the income from downstream value chains can fund the restoration activities.

An example of highly commercialised encroacher biomass use is charcoal production in Namibia. ^[344] There are also efforts to use encroaching woody species as source of alternative animal fodder. This involves either making use of the leaf material of encroaching species, ^{[345] [346] [347] [348] [349]} or milling the entire plant. ^{[337] [350]}

In the same vein, the World Wildlife Fund has identified invasive and encroaching plant species as a possible feed stock for Sustainable Aviation Fuel in South Africa. ^[351]

Also, Payment for Ecosystem Services and specifically Carbon Credits are increasingly explored as a funding mechanism for the control of woody encroachment. Savanna fire management is found to have potential to generate carbon revenue, with which rangeland restoration in Africa can be funded. ^[352]

Challenges

Grassland restoration has generally received less attention than forest restoration during recent decades. ^[277] This is partially explained by widespread opinions, such as grasslands being biodiversity-poor and providing few ecosystem services or that grasslands are a transitional biome. ^[353]

Literature emphasises that a restoration of woody plant encroachment areas to a desired previous non-encroached state is difficult to achieve and the recovery of key-ecosystem may be short-lived or not occur. Intervention methods and technologies must be context-specific to achieve their intended outcome. ^{[354] [40] [355]} No single grass-bush ratio will maximise all ecosystem services. ^[99]

Current efforts of selective plant removal are found to have slowed or halted woody encroachment in respective areas, but are sometimes found to be outpaced by continuing encroachment. ^{[356] [357]} A meta-analysis of 524 studies on ecosystem responses to both encroachment and the removal of woody plants, finds that most efforts to restore the respective ecosystems fail, while the success rate predominantly depends on encroachment stage and plant traits. ^[358] It was further found that different control methods have different effects on specific ecosystem services. For example, mechanical removal of woody plants can enhance forage value, while reducing hydrological regulation. In contrast, chemical removal can enhance hydrological regulations at the expense of plant diversity. This implies that there are trade-offs to be considered for each set of control measures. ^[102]

When bush thinning is implemented in isolation, without follow-up measures, grassland may not be rehabilitated. This is because such once-off treatments typically target small areas at a time and they leave plant seeds behind enabling rapid re-establishment of bushes. A combination of preventative measures, addressing the causes of woody plant encroachment, and responsive measures, rehabilitating affected ecosystems, can overcome woody plant encroachment in the long-run. ^{[311] [359] [360] [294]}

In grassland conservation efforts, the implementation of measures across networks of private lands, instead of individual farms, remains a key challenge. ^{[356] [361]} Due to the high cost of chemical or mechanical removal of woody species, such interventions are often implemented on a small scale, i.e. a few hectares at a time. This differs from natural control processes before human land use, e.g. widespread fires and vegetation pressure by free roaming wildlife. As a result, the interventions often have limited impact on the continued dispersal and spread of woody plants. ^[297] For this reason, a key strategy developed in Northern America is termed "defending the core". It involves the systematic expansion of healthy areas of grasslands to the outside, i.e. thinning of bush stands at the perimeter. ^{[58] [362]}

Countering woody encroachment can be costly and largely depends on the financial capacity of land users. Linking bush control to the concept of Payment for ecosystem services (PES) has been explored in some countries. ^[363]

The perceptions and priorities of land users, in terms of ecosystem services to be restored, are often not sufficiently known or taken into consideration when undertaking or promoting restoration measures. ^[364]

Managing the woody cover alone does not guarantee productive ecosystems, as also the cover and diversity of desired grass species must form part of the management considerations. ^[365]

Relation to climate change mitigation and adaptation

Amount of carbon stored in Earth's various terrestrial ecosystems, in gigatonnes

National carbon accounting and related trade-offs

Grassland conservation can make a significant contribution to global carbon sequestration targets, but compared to sequestration potential in forestry and agriculture, this is still insufficiently explored and implemented. ^[367] Detailed accounting for the effect of woody encroachment on global carbon pools and fluxes is unclear. ^[368] Given scientific uncertainties, it varies widely how countries factor woody encroachment and the control thereof into their national Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

In early carbon sink quantifications, woody encroachment was found to account for as much as 22% to 40% of the regional carbon sink in the USA. ^{[368] [369]} In the US, woody encroachment is however seen as a key uncertainty in the US carbon balance. ^{[370] [371]} The sink capacity is found to decrease when encroachment has reached its maximum extent. ^[372] Also in Australia, woody encroachment constitutes a high proportion of the national carbon account. ^{[373] [374]} Australia's carbon plan is however criticised for ignoring the carbon potential of the soil, which in drylands is found to be seven to one hundred times larger than that of vegetation. ^[375] In South Africa, woody encroachment was estimated to have added around 21.000 Gg CO₂ to the national carbon sink, ^[376] while it has been highlighted that especially the loss of grass roots leads to losses of below-ground carbon, which is not fully compensated by gains of above-ground carbon. ^[377]

It is suggested that the classification of encroached grasslands and savannas as carbon sinks may often be incorrect, underestimating soil organic carbon losses. ^{[378] [210]} Beyond difficulties to conclusively quantify the changes in carbon storage, promoting carbon storage through woody encroachment can constitute a trade-off, as it may reduce biodiversity of savanna endemics and core ecosystem services, like land productivity and water availability. ^{[379] [119] [380]}

Several trade-offs must be considered in land management decisions, such as a possible carbon-biodiversity tradeoff. ^{[381] [382] [383] [4]} It can have severe negative consequences, if woody encroachment or the invasion of alien woody species, is accepted and seen as a way to increase ecosystem CO₂ sink capacities. ^{[384] [385] [386] [277]} In its 2022 Sixth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identifies woody encroachment as a contribution to land degradation, through the loss of open ecosystems and their services. The report further stipulates that while there may be slight increases in carbon, woody encroachment at the same time masks negative impacts on biodiversity and water cycles and therewith livelihoods. ^[387]

Carbon focused restorations approaches remain vital and can be balanced with the need to enhance other ecosystem services through spatially mixed management strategies, leaving encroached patches and in thinned areas. ^[295]

Conflicting climate change mitigation measures

Woody encroachment can be exacerbated when affected ecosystems become the target of misguided afforestation. ^[388] It is found that grasslands are frequently misidentified as degraded forests and targeted by afforestation efforts. ^{[388] [389] [390] [391]} According to an analysis of areas identified to have forest restoration potential by the World Resources Institute, this includes up to 900 million hectares grasslands. ^[392] In Africa alone, 100 million hectares of grasslands are found to be at risk by misdirected afforestation efforts. Among the areas mapped as degraded forests are the Serengeti and Kruger National Parks, which have not been forested for several million years. ^[22] Over half of all tree-planting projects in Africa are implemented in savannah grasslands. ^[388]

Research in Southern Africa suggests, that tree planting in such ecosystems does not lead to increased soil organic carbon, as the latter is predominantly grass-derived. ^[224] Also the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) states that mitigation action, such as reforestation or afforestation, can encroach on land needed for agricultural adaptation and therewith threaten food security, livelihoods and ecosystem functions. ^[92]

Encroachment control as adaptation measure

Some countries, for example South Africa, acknowledge inconclusive evidence on the emissions effect of bush thinning, but strongly promote it as a means of climate change adaptation. ^[393] Geographic selection of intervention areas, targeting areas that are at an early stage of encroachment, can minimise above-ground carbon losses and therewith minimise the possible trade-off between mitigation and adaptation. ^[197] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reflects on this trade-off: "This variable relationship between the level of encroachment, carbon stocks, biodiversity, provision of water and pastoral value can present a conundrum to policymakers, especially when considering the goals of three Rio Conventions: UNFCCC, UNCCD and UNCBD. Clearing intense woody plant encroachment may improve species diversity, rangeland productivity, the provision of water and decrease desertification, thereby contributing to the goals of the UNCBD and UNCCD as well as the adaptation aims of the UNFCCC. However, it would lead to the release of biomass carbon stocks into the atmosphere and potentially conflict with the mitigation aims of the UNFCCC." The IPPC further lists bush control as relevant measure under ecosystem-based adaptation and community-based adaptation. ^[6]

See also

• Convention on Biological Diversity
• Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity
• Environmental restoration
• Farmer-managed natural regeneration
• Grassland degradation
• Land rehabilitation
• Land restoration
• Rangeland management
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

References

1. Archer, Steven R.; Andersen, Erik M.; Predick, Katharine I.; Schwinning, Susanne; Steidl, Robert J.; Woods, Steven R. (2017). "Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences". Rangeland Systems. Springer Series on Environmental Management. pp. 25–84. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2. ISBN   978-3-319-46707-8.
2. Stevens, Nicola; Lehmann, Caroline E. R.; Murphy, Brett P.; Durigan, Giselda (January 2017). "Savanna woody encroachment is widespread across three continents" (PDF). Global Change Biology. 23 (1): 235–244. Bibcode:2017GCBio..23..235S. doi:10.1111/gcb.13409. PMID   27371937.
3. Shipley, J.R.; Frei, E.R.; Bergamini, A.; Boch, S.; Schulz, T.; Ginzler, C.; Barandun, M.; Bebi, P.; Bollman, K.; Bolliger, J.; Graham, C.H.; Krumm, F.; Pichon, N.; Delpouve, N.; Rigling, A.; Rixen, C. (19 August 2024). "Agricultural practices and biodiversity: Conservation policies for natural grasslands in Europe". Current Biology. 34 (16): R753–R761. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.06.062. PMID   39163831.
4. Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David J. (3 July 2024). "Woody encroachment: social–ecological impacts and sustainable management". Biological Reviews. 99 (6): 1909–1926. doi:10.1111/brv.13104. ISSN   1464-7931. PMID   38961449.
5. Eldridge, David J.; Bowker, Matthew A.; Maestre, Fernando T.; Roger, Erin; Reynolds, James F.; Whitford, Walter G. (2011). "Impacts of shrub encroachment on ecosystem structure and functioning: towards a global synthesis". Ecology Letters. 14 (7): 709–722. Bibcode:2011EcolL..14..709E. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01630.x. PMC   3563963 . PMID   21592276.
6. Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (2022). Climate Change and Land. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009157988. ISBN   978-1-009-15798-8.^{[ page needed ]}
7. UNCCD. 2024. Global Land Outlook Thematic Report on Rangelands and Pastoralism. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Bonn.
8. Wigley, B. J.; Bond, W. J.; Hoffman, M. T. (March 2009). "Bush encroachment under three contrasting land-use practices in a mesic South African savanna". African Journal of Ecology. 47 (s1): 62–70. Bibcode:2009AfJEc..47S..62W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.01051.x.
9. Olariu, Horia Gabriel; Wilcox, Bradford P.; Popescu, Sorin C. (21 June 2024). "Examining changes in woody vegetation cover in a human-modified temperate savanna in Central Texas between 1996 and 2022 using remote sensing". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 7. Bibcode:2024FrFGC...796999O. doi: 10.3389/ffgc.2024.1396999 . ISSN   2624-893X.
10. Gairns, Ruth (2020). Oxford word skills: intermediate vocabulary. Stuart Redman, Oxford University Press (First published ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-460570-0. OCLC   1281928091.
11. Staples, R. R. (1945). "Veld Burning". Rhodesian Agricultural Journal. 42: 44–52.
12. West, O. (1947). "Thorn bush encroachment in relation to the management of veld grazing". Rhodesian Agricultural Journal. 44: 488–497. OCLC   709537921.
13. Walter, Heinrich (1954). "Die Verbuschung, eine Erscheinung der subtropischen Savannengebiete, und ihre ökologischen Ursachen". Vegetatio Acta Geobot (in German). 5 (1): 6–10. doi:10.1007/BF00299544. S2CID   12772783.
14. Irini, Soubry; Xulin, Guo (28 July 2022). "Invasive and native woody plant encroachment: Definitions and debates". Journal of Plant Science and Phytopathology. 6 (2): 084–086. doi:10.29328/journal.jpsp.1001079. S2CID   251633819.
15. Trollope, W.S.W.; Trollope, Lynne A.; Bosch, O.J.H. (March 1990). "Veld and pasture management terminology in southern Africa". Journal of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa. 7 (1): 52–61. doi:10.1080/02566702.1990.9648205.
16. Sanjuán, Yasmina; Arnáez, José; Beguería, Santiago; Lana-Renault, Noemí; Lasanta, Teodoro; Gómez-Villar, Amelia; Álvarez-Martínez, Javier; Coba-Pérez, Paz; García-Ruiz, José M. (April 2018). "Woody plant encroachment following grazing abandonment in the subalpine belt: a case study in northern Spain". Regional Environmental Change. 18 (4): 1103–1115. Bibcode:2018REnvC..18.1103S. doi:10.1007/s10113-017-1245-y. hdl:10261/163554. S2CID   158252929.
17. Wang, Xiao; Jiang, Lina; Yang, Xiaohui; Shi, Zhongjie; Yu, Pengtao (25 November 2020). "Does Shrub Encroachment Indicate Ecosystem Degradation? A Perspective Based on the Spatial Patterns of Woody Plants in a Temperate Savanna-Like Ecosystem of Inner Mongolia, China". Forests. 11 (12): 1248. Bibcode:2020Fore...11.1248W. doi: 10.3390/f11121248 .
18. Ratajczak, Zak; D'Odorico, Paolo; Nippert, Jesse B.; Collins, Scott L.; Brunsell, Nathaniel A.; Ravi, Sujith (May 2017). "Changes in spatial variance during a grassland to shrubland state transition". Journal of Ecology. 105 (3): 750–760. Bibcode:2017JEcol.105..750R. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12696. S2CID   51991418.
19. T. M. Lenton, D.I. Armstrong McKay, S. Loriani, J.F. Abrams, S.J. Lade, J.F. Donges, M. Milkoreit, T. Powell, S.R. Smith, C. Zimm, J.E. Buxton, E. Bailey, L. Laybourn, A. Ghadiali, J.G. Dyke (eds), 2023, The Global Tipping Points Report 2023. University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.^{[ page needed ]}
20. Bora, Zinabu; Wang, Yongdong; Xu, Xinwen; Angassa, Ayana; You, Yuan (July 2021). "Effects comparison of co-occurring Vachellia tree species on understory herbaceous vegetation biomass and soil nutrient: Case of semi-arid savanna grasslands in southern Ethiopia". Journal of Arid Environments. 190: 104527. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2021.104527. S2CID   236264479.
21. Lewis, Joel R.; Verboom, George A.; February, Edmund C. (March 2021). Cooke, Julia (ed.). "Coexistence and bush encroachment in African savannas: The role of the regeneration niche". Functional Ecology. 35 (3): 764–773. Bibcode:2021FuEco..35..764L. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13759. ISSN   0269-8463.
22. Bond, William J.; Stevens, Nicola; Midgley, Guy F.; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (November 2019). "The Trouble with Trees: Afforestation Plans for Africa" (PDF). Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 34 (11): 963–965. Bibcode:2019TEcoE..34..963B. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2019.08.003. PMID   31515117.
23. Saha, M. V.; Scanlon, T. M.; D'Odorico, P. (September 2015). "Examining the linkage between shrub encroachment and recent greening in water-limited southern Africa". Ecosphere. 6 (9): 1–16. Bibcode:2015Ecosp...6....1S. doi:10.1890/ES15-00098.1. S2CID   59325553.
24. Deng, Yuanhong; Li, Xiaoyan; Shi, Fangzhong; Hu, Xia (December 2021). "Woody plant encroachment enhanced global vegetation greening and ecosystem water-use efficiency". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 30 (12): 2337–2353. Bibcode:2021GloEB..30.2337D. doi:10.1111/geb.13386. S2CID   239685781.
25. Herrmann, S. M.; Tappan, G. G. (1 March 2013). "Vegetation impoverishment despite greening: A case study from central Senegal". Journal of Arid Environments. 90: 55–66. Bibcode:2013JArEn..90...55H. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.10.020. ISSN   0140-1963.
26. Aleman, J. C.; Fayolle, A.; Favier, C.; Staver, A. C.; Dexter, K. G.; Ryan, C. M.; Azihou, A. F.; Bauman, D.; te Beest, M.; Chidumayo, E. N.; Comiskey, J. A. (10 November 2020). "Floristic evidence for alternative biome states in tropical Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (45): 28183–28190. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11728183A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2011515117 . PMC   7668043 . PMID   33109722.
27. D'Odorico, Paolo; Okin, Gregory S.; Bestelmeyer, Brandon T. (September 2012). "A synthetic review of feedbacks and drivers of shrub encroachment in arid grasslands". Ecohydrology. 5 (5): 520–530. Bibcode:2012Ecohy...5..520D. doi:10.1002/eco.259. S2CID   40149918.
28. Collins, Scott L.; Nippert, Jesse B.; Blair, John M.; Briggs, John M.; Blackmore, Pamela; Ratajczak, Zak (April 2021). "Fire frequency, state change and hysteresis in tallgrass prairie". Ecology Letters. 24 (4): 636–647. Bibcode:2021EcolL..24..636C. doi:10.1111/ele.13676. PMID   33443318. S2CID   210625723.
29. Nackley, Lloyd L.; West, Adam G.; Skowno, Andrew L.; Bond, William J. (November 2017). "The Nebulous Ecology of Native Invasions". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 32 (11): 814–824. Bibcode:2017TEcoE..32..814N. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2017.08.003. PMID   28890126.
30. Liu, Xu; Feng, Siwen; Liu, Hongyan; Ji, Jue (15 August 2021). "Patterns and determinants of woody encroachment in the eastern Eurasian steppe". Land Degradation & Development. 32 (13): 3536–3549. Bibcode:2021LDeDe..32.3536L. doi:10.1002/ldr.3938. S2CID   233663989.
31. Treml, Václav; Wild, Jan; Chuman, Tomáš; Potůčková, Markéta (1 January 2010). "Assessing the Change in Cover of Non-Indigenous Dwarf-Pine Using Aerial Photographs, a Case Study from the Hrubý Jeseník Mts., the Sudetes". Journal of Landscape Ecology. 3 (2): 90–104. doi:10.2478/v10285-012-0029-9. ISSN   1803-2427.
32. Cannone, Nicoletta; Sgorbati, Sergio; Guglielmin, Mauro (2007). "Unexpected impacts of climate change on alpine vegetation". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. preprint (2007): 1. doi:10.1890/060141 (inactive 11 November 2024). ISSN   1540-9295.
33. Venter, Z. S.; Cramer, M. D.; Hawkins, H.-J. (11 June 2018). "Drivers of woody plant encroachment over Africa". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2272. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2272V. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04616-8. PMC   5995890 . PMID   29891933.
34. D'Adamo, Francesco; Ogutu, Booker; Brandt, Martin; Schurgers, Guy; Dash, Jadunandan (July 2021). "Climatic and non-climatic vegetation cover changes in the rangelands of Africa" (PDF). Global and Planetary Change. 202: 103516. Bibcode:2021GPC...20203516D. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103516. S2CID   236563063.
35. Reiner, Florian; Brandt, Martin; Tong, Xiaoye; Skole, David; Kariryaa, Ankit; Ciais, Philippe; Davies, Andrew; Hiernaux, Pierre; Chave, Jérôme; Mugabowindekwe, Maurice; Igel, Christian; Oehmcke, Stefan; Gieseke, Fabian; Li, Sizhuo; Liu, Siyu (2 May 2023). "More than one quarter of Africa's tree cover is found outside areas previously classified as forest". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 2258. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.2258R. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37880-4. PMC   10154416 . PMID   37130845.
36. Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Flintrop, Clara M. (5 September 2013). "Woody encroachment and forest degradation in sub-Saharan Africa's woodlands and savannas 1982–2006". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1625): 20120406. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0406. PMC   3720033 . PMID   23878342.
37. Martens, Carola; Hickler, Thomas; Davis-Reddy, Claire; Engelbrecht, Francois; Higgins, Steven I.; von Maltitz, Graham P.; Midgley, Guy F.; Pfeiffer, Mirjam; Scheiter, Simon (January 2021). "Large uncertainties in future biome changes in Africa call for flexible climate adaptation strategies". Global Change Biology. 27 (2): 340–358. Bibcode:2021GCBio..27..340M. doi:10.1111/gcb.15390. ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   33037718.
38. Fuchs, R.; Herold, M.; Verburg, P. H.; Clevers, J. G. P. W. (7 March 2013). "A high-resolution and harmonized model approach for reconstructing and analysing historic land changes in Europe". Biogeosciences. 10 (3): 1543–1559. Bibcode:2013BGeo...10.1543F. doi: 10.5194/bg-10-1543-2013 .
39. García Criado, Mariana; Myers-Smith, Isla H.; Bjorkman, Anne D.; Lehmann, Caroline E. R.; Stevens, Nicola (May 2020). "Woody plant encroachment intensifies under climate change across tundra and savanna biomes" (PDF). Global Ecology and Biogeography. 29 (5): 925–943. Bibcode:2020GloEB..29..925G. doi:10.1111/geb.13072.
40. Van Auken, Oscar W. (July 2009). "Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands". Journal of Environmental Management. 90 (10): 2931–2942. Bibcode:2009JEnvM..90.2931V. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.04.023. PMID   19501450.
41. Archer, Steve; Boutton, Thomas W.; Hibbard, K.A. (2001). "Trees in Grasslands". Global Biogeochemical Cycles in the Climate System. pp. 115–137. doi:10.1016/b978-012631260-7/50011-x. ISBN   978-0-12-631260-7.
42. Gao, Guizai; Rand, Evett; Li, Nannan; Li, Dehui; Wang, Jiangyong; Niu, Honghao; Meng, Meng; Liu, Ying; Jie, Dongmei (June 2022). "East Asian monsoon modulated Holocene spatial and temporal migration of forest-grassland ecotone in Northeast China". CATENA. 213: 106151. Bibcode:2022Caten.21306151G. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2022.106151. S2CID   247276999.
43. Stevens, Nicola; Bond, William; Feurdean, Angelica; Lehmann, Caroline E.R. (17 October 2022). "Grassy Ecosystems in the Anthropocene". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 47 (1): 261–289. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-112420-015211. S2CID   251265576.
44. Gxasheka, Masibonge; Gajana, Christian Sabelo; Dlamini, Phesheya (1 October 2023). "The role of topographic and soil factors on woody plant encroachment in mountainous rangelands: A mini literature review". Heliyon. 9 (10): e20615. Bibcode:2023Heliy...920615G. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20615 . PMC   10590860 . PMID   37876417.
45. Devine, Aisling P.; McDonald, Robbie A.; Quaife, Tristan; Maclean, Ilya M. D. (2017). "Determinants of woody encroachment and cover in African savannas". Oecologia. 183 (4): 939–951. Bibcode:2017Oecol.183..939D. doi:10.1007/s00442-017-3807-6. PMC   5348564 . PMID   28116524.
46. Luvuno, Linda; Biggs, Reinette; Stevens, Nicola; Esler, Karen (28 June 2018). "Woody Encroachment as a Social-Ecological Regime Shift". Sustainability. 10 (7): 2221. Bibcode:2018Sust...10.2221L. doi: 10.3390/su10072221 .
47. De Jonge, Inger K.; Olff, Han; Mayemba, Emilian P.; Berger, Stijn J.; Veldhuis, Michiel P. (12 July 2023). Understanding woody plant encroachment: a plant functional trait approach (Preprint). Ecology. doi:10.1101/2023.07.11.548581.
48. Koch, Franziska; Tietjen, Britta; Tielbörger, Katja; Allhoff, Korinna T. (March 2023). "Livestock management promotes bush encroachment in savanna systems by altering plant–herbivore feedback". Oikos. 2023 (3). Bibcode:2023Oikos2023E9462K. doi:10.1111/oik.09462. S2CID   253299539.
49. Moreira, Francisco; Viedma, Olga; Arianoutsou, Margarita; Curt, Thomas; Koutsias, Nikos; Rigolot, Eric; Barbati, Anna; Corona, Piermaria; Vaz, Pedro; Xanthopoulos, Gavriil; Mouillot, Florent; Bilgili, Ertugrul (October 2011). "Landscape – wildfire interactions in southern Europe: Implications for landscape management". Journal of Environmental Management. 92 (10): 2389–2402. Bibcode:2011JEnvM..92.2389M. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.028. hdl:10400.5/16228. PMID   21741757. S2CID   37743448.
50. Snell, Rebecca S.; Peringer, Alexander; Frank, Viktoria; Bugmann, Harald (July 2022). "Management-based mitigation of the impacts of climate-driven woody encroachment in high elevation pasture woodlands". Journal of Applied Ecology. 59 (7): 1925–1936. Bibcode:2022JApEc..59.1925S. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14199. S2CID   248585159.
51. Gómez-García, Daniel; Aguirre de Juana, Ángel Javier; Jiménez Sánchez, Rafael; Manrique Magallón, Celia (January 2023). "Shrub encroachment in Mediterranean mountain grasslands: Rate and consequences on plant diversity and forage availability". Journal of Vegetation Science. 34 (1). Bibcode:2023JVegS..34E3174G. doi:10.1111/jvs.13174. S2CID   255631889.
52. Jeltsch, Florian; Milton, Suzanne J.; Dean, W. R. J.; Van Rooyen, Noel (1997). "Analysing Shrub Encroachment in the Southern Kalahari: A Grid-Based Modelling Approach". Journal of Applied Ecology. 34 (6): 1497–1508. Bibcode:1997JApEc..34.1497J. doi:10.2307/2405265. JSTOR   2405265.
53. Brown, Joel R.; Archer, Steve (October 1999). "Shrub Invasion of Grassland: Recruitment is Continuous and Not Regulated by Herbaceous Biomass or Density". Ecology. 80 (7): 2385–2396. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[2385:SIOGRI]2.0.CO;2. hdl:1969.1/182279.
54. Tews, Jörg; Schurr, Frank; Jeltsch, Florian (2004). "Seed Dispersal by Cattle May Cause Shrub Encroachment of Grewia flava on Southern Kalahari Rangelands". Applied Vegetation Science. 7 (1): 89–102. Bibcode:2004AppVS...7...89T. doi:10.1111/j.1654-109X.2004.tb00599.x. JSTOR   1478971.
55. Vukeya, Loyd R.; Mokotjomela, Thabiso M.; Malebo, Ntsoaki J.; Saheed, Oke (September 2022). "Seed dispersal phenology of encroaching woody species in the Free State National Botanical Garden, South Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 60 (3): 723–735. Bibcode:2022AfJEc..60..723V. doi:10.1111/aje.13013.
56. Zinnert, Julie C.; Nippert, Jesse B.; Rudgers, Jennifer A.; Pennings, Steven C.; González, Grizelle; Alber, Merryl; Baer, Sara G.; Blair, John M.; Burd, Adrian; Collins, Scott L.; Craft, Christopher; Di Iorio, Daniela; Dodds, Walter K.; Groffman, Peter M.; Herbert, Ellen; Hladik, Christine; Li, Fan; Litvak, Marcy E.; Newsome, Seth; O’Donnell, John; Pockman, William T.; Schalles, John; Young, Donald R. (May 2021). "State changes: insights from the U.S. Long Term Ecological Research Network". Ecosphere. 12 (5). Bibcode:2021Ecosp..12E3433Z. doi:10.1002/ecs2.3433.
57. Stevens, Nicola; Erasmus, Barend F. N.; Archibald, Sally; Bond, William J. (19 September 2016). "Woody encroachment over 70 years in South African savannahs: overgrazing, global change or extinction aftershock?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1703): 20150437. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0437. PMC   4978877 . PMID   27502384.
58. "A 'Green Glacier' of trees and shrubs is burying prairies, threatening ranchers and wildlife". KCUR - Kansas City news and NPR. 22 April 2024. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
59. O'Connor, Tim G; Puttick, James R; Hoffman, M Timm (4 May 2014). "Bush encroachment in southern Africa: changes and causes". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 31 (2): 67–88. Bibcode:2014AJRFS..31...67O. doi:10.2989/10220119.2014.939996. S2CID   81059843.
60. Trollope, W.S.W. (January 1980). "Controlling bush encroachment with fire in the savanna areas of South Africa". Proceedings of the Annual Congresses of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa. 15 (1): 173–177. doi:10.1080/00725560.1980.9648907.
61. Bowman, David M. J. S.; Kolden, Crystal A.; Abatzoglou, John T.; Johnston, Fay H.; van der Werf, Guido R.; Flannigan, Mike (18 August 2020). "Vegetation fires in the Anthropocene". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 1 (10): 500–515. Bibcode:2020NRvEE...1..500B. doi:10.1038/s43017-020-0085-3. S2CID   221167343.
62. Vanderhaeghen, Yves (1 August 2024). "Veld fires can help combat bush encroachment, extinction: ecologist". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 6 August 2024.
63. Van Langevelde, Frank; Van De Vijver, Claudius A. D. M.; Kumar, Lalit; Van De Koppel, Johan; De Ridder, Nico; Van Andel, Jelte; Skidmore, Andrew K.; Hearne, John W.; Stroosnijder, Leo; Bond, William J.; Prins, Herbert H. T.; Rietkerk, Max (February 2003). "Effects of Fire and Herbivory on the Stability of Savanna Ecosystems". Ecology. 84 (2): 337–350. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0337:EOFAHO]2.0.CO;2. hdl:20.500.11755/3d42107b-dbca-4edd-8f47-4405a2531e16. S2CID   55609611.
64. Archibald, Sally; Roy, David P.; Van Wilgen, Brian W.; Scholes, Robert J. (March 2009). "What limits fire? An examination of drivers of burnt area in Southern Africa". Global Change Biology. 15 (3): 613–630. Bibcode:2009GCBio..15..613A. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01754.x. S2CID   53330863.
65. Cardoso, Anabelle W.; Archibald, Sally; Bond, William J.; Coetsee, Corli; Forrest, Matthew; Govender, Navashni; Lehmann, David; Makaga, Loïc; Mpanza, Nokukhanya; Ndong, Josué Edzang; Koumba Pambo, Aurélie Flore; Strydom, Tercia; Tilman, David; Wragg, Peter D.; Staver, A. Carla (28 June 2022). "Quantifying the environmental limits to fire spread in grassy ecosystems". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (26): e2110364119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11910364C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2110364119 . PMC   9245651 . PMID   35733267.
66. Staver, Carla; Archibald, Sally; Levin, Simon A. (2011). "The Global Extent and Determinants of Savanna and Forest as Alternative Biome States". Science. 334 (6053): 230–232. Bibcode:2011Sci...334..230S. doi:10.1126/science.1210465. PMID   21998389. S2CID   11100977.
67. Lehmann, Caroline E. R.; Archibald, Sally A.; Hoffmann, William A.; Bond, William J. (July 2011). "Deciphering the distribution of the savanna biome". New Phytologist. 191 (1): 197–209. Bibcode:2011NewPh.191..197L. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03689.x. PMID   21463328.
68. Ratajczak, Zak; Nippert, Jesse B.; Briggs, John M.; Blair, John M. (November 2014). "Fire dynamics distinguish grasslands, shrublands and woodlands as alternative attractors in the C entral G reat P lains of N orth A merica". Journal of Ecology. 102 (6): 1374–1385. Bibcode:2014JEcol.102.1374R. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12311. hdl:2097/19193. S2CID   53136300.
69. Sühs, Rafael Barbizan; Giehl, Eduardo Luís Hettwer; Peroni, Nivaldo (December 2020). "Preventing traditional management can cause grassland loss within 30 years in southern Brazil". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 783. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10..783S. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-57564-z. PMC   6972928 . PMID   31964935.
70. Raubenheimer, Sarah Lynn; Simpson, Kimberley; Carkeek, Richard; Ripley, Brad (2 January 2022). "Could CO 2 -induced changes to C 4 grass flammability aggravate savanna woody encroachment?" (PDF). African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (1): 82–95. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39...82R. doi:10.2989/10220119.2021.1986131. S2CID   244674525.
71. Schreiner-McGraw, Adam P.; Vivoni, Enrique R.; Ajami, Hoori; Sala, Osvaldo E.; Throop, Heather L.; Peters, Debra P. C. (December 2020). "Woody Plant Encroachment has a Larger Impact than Climate Change on Dryland Water Budgets". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 8112. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.8112S. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65094-x. PMC   7229153 . PMID   32415221.
72. Skarpe, Christina (1990). "Shrub Layer Dynamics Under Different Herbivore Densities in an Arid Savanna, Botswana". Journal of Applied Ecology. 27 (3): 873–885. Bibcode:1990JApEc..27..873S. doi:10.2307/2404383. JSTOR   2404383.
73. O’Keefe, K.; Keen, R.; Tooley, E.; Bachle, S.; Nippert, J.; McCulloh, K. (13 October 2021). "Hydraulic Responses of Shrubs and Grasses to Fire Frequency and Drought in a Tallgrass Prairie Experiencing Bush Encroachment". IGC Proceedings (1997-2023).
74. Dahl, Regina; Dalgaard, Tommy; Bork, Edward W. (1 December 2020). "Shrub Encroachment Following Wetland Creation in Mixedgrass Prairie Alters Grassland Vegetation and Soil". Environmental Management. 66 (6): 1120–1132. Bibcode:2020EnMan..66.1120D. doi:10.1007/s00267-020-01386-2. ISSN   1432-1009. PMID   33128111.
75. Wigley, Benjamin J.; Bond, William J.; Hoffman, M. Timm (March 2010). "Thicket expansion in a South African savanna under divergent land use: local vs. global drivers?". Global Change Biology. 16 (3): 964–976. Bibcode:2010GCBio..16..964W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02030.x. S2CID   86028800.
76. Ward, David; Hoffman, M Timm; Collocott, Sarah J (4 May 2014). "A century of woody plant encroachment in the dry Kimberley savanna of South Africa". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 31 (2): 107–121. Bibcode:2014AJRFS..31..107W. doi:10.2989/10220119.2014.914974. S2CID   85329588.
77. Pierce, Nathan A.; Archer, Steven R.; Bestelmeyer, Brandon T.; James, Darren K. (April 2019). "Grass-Shrub Competition in Arid Lands: An Overlooked Driver in Grassland–Shrubland State Transition?". Ecosystems. 22 (3): 619–628. Bibcode:2019Ecosy..22..619P. doi:10.1007/s10021-018-0290-9. S2CID   52054984.
78. Bravo-García, Javier; Camarillo-Naranjo, Juan; Blanco-Velázquez, Francisco J.; González-Peñaloza, Félix; Anaya-Romero, María (25 September 2024). "Mapping the potential habitat suitability and opportunities of bush encroacher species in Southern Africa: a case study of the SteamBioAfrica project". Frontiers of Biogeography. 17. doi:10.21425/fob.17.136222. ISSN   1948-6596.
79. Higgins, Steven I.; Scheiter, Simon (August 2012). "Atmospheric CO2 forces abrupt vegetation shifts locally, but not globally". Nature. 488 (7410): 209–212. doi:10.1038/nature11238. PMID   22763447. S2CID   4346885.
80. Bond, William J.; Midgley, Guy F. (19 February 2012). "Carbon dioxide and the uneasy interactions of trees and savannah grasses". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 367 (1588): 601–612. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0182. PMC   3248705 . PMID   22232770.
81. Bond, W. J.; Midgley, G. F.; Woodward, F. I. (July 2003). "The importance of low atmospheric CO 2 and fire in promoting the spread of grasslands and savannas". Global Change Biology. 9 (7): 973–982. Bibcode:2003GCBio...9..973B. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00577.x.
82. Tabares, Ximena; Zimmermann, Heike; Dietze, Elisabeth; Ratzmann, Gregor; Belz, Lukas; Vieth-Hillebrand, Andrea; Dupont, Lydie; Wilkes, Heinz; Mapani, Benjamin; Herzschuh, Ulrike (January 2020). "Vegetation state changes in the course of shrub encroachment in an African savanna since about 1850 CE and their potential drivers". Ecology and Evolution. 10 (2): 962–979. Bibcode:2020EcoEv..10..962T. doi: 10.1002/ece3.5955 . PMC   6988543 . PMID   32015858.
83. Luvuno, Linda; Biggs, Reinette; Stevens, Nicola; Esler, Karen (2018). "Woody Encroachment as a Social-Ecological Regime Shift". Sustainability. 10 (7): 2221. Bibcode:2018Sust...10.2221L. doi: 10.3390/su10072221 .
84. Kumar, Dushyant; Pfeiffer, Mirjam; Gaillard, Camille; Langan, Liam; Scheiter, Simon (17 May 2021). "Climate change and elevated CO2 favor forest over savanna under different future scenarios in South Asia". Biogeosciences. 18 (9): 2957. doi: 10.5194/bg-18-2957-2021 . Gale   A662051236.
85. Maschler, Julia; Bialic-Murphy, Lalasia; Wan, Joe; Andresen, Louise C.; Zohner, Constantin M.; Reich, Peter B.; Lüscher, Andreas; Schneider, Manuel K.; Müller, Christoph; Moser, Gerald; Dukes, Jeffrey S.; Schmidt, Inger Kappel; Bilton, Mark C.; Zhu, Kai; Crowther, Thomas W. (November 2022). "Links across ecological scales: Plant biomass responses to elevated CO 2". Global Change Biology. 28 (21): 6115–6134. Bibcode:2022GCBio..28.6115M. doi:10.1111/gcb.16351. ISSN   1354-1013. PMC   9825951 . PMID   36069191.
86. Ripley, Brad S.; Raubenheimer, Sarah L.; Perumal, Lavinia; Anderson, Maurice; Mostert, Emma; Kgope, Barney S.; Midgley, Guy F.; Simpson, Kimberley J. (December 2022). "CO 2 -fertilisation enhances resilience to browsing in the recruitment phase of an encroaching savanna tree". Functional Ecology. 36 (12): 3223–3233. Bibcode:2022FuEco..36.3223R. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.14215.
87. Kulmatiski, Andrew; Beard, Karen H. (September 2013). "Woody plant encroachment facilitated by increased precipitation intensity". Nature Climate Change. 3 (9): 833–837. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..833K. doi:10.1038/nclimate1904.
88. Holdrege, Martin C.; Kulmatiski, Andrew; Beard, Karen H.; Palmquist, Kyle A. (April 2023). "Precipitation Intensification Increases Shrub Dominance in Arid, Not Mesic, Ecosystems". Ecosystems. 26 (3): 568–584. Bibcode:2023Ecosy..26..568H. doi:10.1007/s10021-022-00778-1.
89. D'Adamo, Francesco; Spake, Rebecca; Bullock, James M.; Ogutu, Booker; Dash, Jadunandan; Eigenbrod, Felix 4 (1 February 2024). Precipitation and temperature drive woody dynamics in the grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa (Preprint). doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3914432/v1.
90. Archer SR, Davies KW, Fulbright TE, Kirk CM, Bradford WP, Predick KI (2011). "Brush management as a rangeland conservation strategy: a critical evaluation". Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: assessment, recommendations, and knowledge gaps. Allen Press. pp. 105–170. ISBN   978-0-9849499-0-8.
91. Ncisana, Lusanda; Mkhize, Ntuthuko R; Scogings, Peter F (3 July 2022). "Warming promotes growth of seedlings of a woody encroacher in grassland dominated by C 4 species". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (3): 272–280. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39..272N. doi:10.2989/10220119.2021.1913762.
92. Ipcc (2022). Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C Above Pre-industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways, in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009157940. ISBN   978-1-009-15794-0.^{[ page needed ]}
93. Abel, Christin; Abdi, Abdulhakim M.; Tagesson, Torbern; Horion, Stephanie; Fensholt, Rasmus (July 2023). "Contrasting ecosystem vegetation response in global drylands under drying and wetting conditions". Global Change Biology. 29 (14): 3954–3969. Bibcode:2023GCBio..29.3954A. doi:10.1111/gcb.16745. PMID   37103433.
94. Irob, Katja; Blaum, Niels; Weiss-Aparicio, Alex; Hauptfleisch, Morgan; Hering, Robert; Uiseb, Kenneth; Tietjen, Britta (30 January 2023). "Savanna resilience to droughts increases with the proportion of browsing wild herbivores and plant functional diversity". Journal of Applied Ecology. 60 (2): 251–262. Bibcode:2023JApEc..60..251I. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14351. ISSN   0021-8901. S2CID   256483101.
95. LaMalfa, Eric M.; Riginos, Corinna; Veblen, Kari E. (October 2021). "Browsing wildlife and heavy grazing indirectly facilitate sapling recruitment in an East African savanna". Ecological Applications. 31 (7): e02399. Bibcode:2021EcoAp..31E2399L. doi:10.1002/eap.2399. PMID   34212437. S2CID   235708531.
96. Pinnock, Don (8 May 2024). "Biological vandalism— the world's wild savannas may be doomed". Daily Maverick. Retrieved 9 May 2024.
97. "Uncertainties: global change - The loss of the North American grassland biome | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
98. Yang, Jia; Will, Rodney; Zhai, Lu; Zou, Chris (July 2024). "Future Climate Change Shifts the Ranges of Major Encroaching Woody Plant Species in the Southern Great Plains, USA". Earth's Future. 12 (7). Bibcode:2024EaFut..1204520Y. doi:10.1029/2024EF004520. ISSN   2328-4277.
99. Eldridge, David J.; Soliveres, Santiago (2014). "Are shrubs really a sign of declining ecosystem function? Disentangling the myths and truths of woody encroachment in Australia". Australian Journal of Botany. 62 (7): 594. doi:10.1071/BT14137.
100. Hovick, Torre J.; Duchardt, Courtney J.; Duquette, Cameron A. (2023). "Rangeland Biodiversity". Rangeland Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. pp. 209–249. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34037-6_8. ISBN   978-3-031-34036-9.
101. Ji-Shi, Awei; Zhao, Jingxue; Qu, Guangpeng; Wu, Gao-Lin (30 July 2024). "Divergent responses of above- and belowground ecosystem functioning to shrub encroachment in the Tibetan semi-arid alpine steppes". Land Degradation & Development. 35 (12): 3911–3920. doi:10.1002/ldr.5196. ISSN   1085-3278.
102. Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David J. (February 2024). "Ecosystem service trade-offs resulting from woody plant removal vary with biome, encroachment stage and removal method". Journal of Applied Ecology. 61 (2): 236–248. Bibcode:2024JApEc..61..236D. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14551. S2CID   266141009.
103. Maestre, Fernando T.; Eldridge, David J.; Soliveres, Santiago; Kéfi, Sonia; Delgado-Baquerizo, Manuel; Bowker, Matthew A.; García-Palacios, Pablo; Gaitán, Juan; Gallardo, Antonio; Lázaro, Roberto; Berdugo, Miguel (November 2016). "Structure and Functioning of Dryland Ecosystems in a Changing World". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 47 (1): 215–237. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032311. ISSN   1543-592X. PMC   5321561 . PMID   28239303.
104. Eldridge, David J.; Soliveres, Santiago; Bowker, Matthew A.; Val, James (August 2013). "Grazing dampens the positive effects of shrub encroachment on ecosystem functions in a semi-arid woodland". Journal of Applied Ecology. 50 (4): 1028–1038. Bibcode:2013JApEc..50.1028E. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12105.
105. Soliveres, Santiago; Maestre, Fernando T.; Eldridge, David J.; Delgado-Baquerizo, Manuel; Quero, José Luis; Bowker, Matthew A.; Gallardo, Antonio (December 2014). "Plant diversity and ecosystem multifunctionality peak at intermediate levels of woody cover in global drylands: Woody dominance and ecosystem functioning". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 23 (12): 1408–1416. doi:10.1111/geb.12215. PMC   4407977 . PMID   25914607.
106. Riginos, Corinna; Grace, James B.; Augustine, David J.; Young, Truman P. (November 2009). "Local versus landscape-scale effects of savanna trees on grasses". Journal of Ecology. 97 (6): 1337–1345. Bibcode:2009JEcol..97.1337R. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01563.x. S2CID   5548695.
107. Knapp, Alan K.; Briggs, John M.; Collins, Scott L.; Archer, Steven R.; Bret-Harte, M. Syndonia; Ewers, Brent E.; Peters, Debra P.; Young, Donald R.; Shaver, Gaius R.; Pendall, Elise; Cleary, Meagan B. (March 2008). "Shrub encroachment in North American grasslands: shifts in growth form dominance rapidly alters control of ecosystem carbon inputs". Global Change Biology. 14 (3): 615–623. Bibcode:2008GCBio..14..615K. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01512.x. S2CID   85993435.
108. Schlesinger, William H.; Reynolds, James F.; Cunningham, Gary L.; Huenneke, Laura F.; Jarrell, Wesley M.; Virginia, Ross A.; Whitford, Walter G. (2 March 1990). "Biological Feedbacks in Global Desertification". Science. 247 (4946): 1043–1048. Bibcode:1990Sci...247.1043S. doi:10.1126/science.247.4946.1043. PMID   17800060. S2CID   33033125.
109. Conant, Francis P. (1982). "Thorns paired, sharply recurved: Cultural controls and rangeland quality in East Africa". In Spooner, Brian; Mann, Haracharan Singh (eds.). Desertification and Development: Dryland Ecology in Social Perspective. Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-658050-1.
110. Maestre, Fernando T.; Bowker, Matthew A.; Puche, María D.; Belén Hinojosa, M.; Martínez, Isabel; García-Palacios, Pablo; Castillo, Andrea P.; Soliveres, Santiago; Luzuriaga, Arántzazu L.; Sánchez, Ana M.; Carreira, José A.; Gallardo, Antonio; Escudero, Adrián (September 2009). "Shrub encroachment can reverse desertification in semi-arid Mediterranean grasslands". Ecology Letters. 12 (9): 930–941. Bibcode:2009EcolL..12..930M. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01352.x. hdl:10261/342018. PMID   19638041.
111. Yang, Wen; Qu, Guangpeng; Kelly, Austin R.; Wu, Gao-Lin; Zhao, Jingxue (March 2024). "Positive effects of leguminous shrub encroachment on multiple ecosystem functions of alpine meadows and steppes greatly depended on increasing soil nutrient". CATENA. 236: 107745. Bibcode:2024Caten.23607745Y. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2023.107745. S2CID   266097074.
112. Asner, Gregory P.; Elmore, Andrew J.; Olander, Lydia P.; Martin, Roberta E.; Harris, A. Thomas (21 November 2004). "Grazing Systems, Ecosystem Responses, and Global Change". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 29 (1): 261–299. doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.29.062403.102142.
113. Ratajczak, Zak; Briggs, John M.; Goodin, Doug G.; Luo, Lei; Mohler, Rhett L.; Nippert, Jesse B.; Obermeyer, Brian (July 2016). "Assessing the Potential for Transitions from Tallgrass Prairie to Woodlands: Are We Operating Beyond Critical Fire Thresholds?". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 69 (4): 280–287. Bibcode:2016REcoM..69..280R. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2016.03.004. S2CID   88200701.
114. Smit, G. Nico (2005). "Tree thinning as an option to increase herbaceous yield of an encroached semi-arid savanna in South Africa". BMC Ecol. 5 (1): 4. Bibcode:2005BMCE....5....4S. doi: 10.1186/1472-6785-5-4 . PMC   1164409 . PMID   15921528.
115. Geißler, Katja; Blaum, Niels; von Maltitz, Graham P.; Smith, Taylor; Bookhagen, Bodo; Wanke, Heike; Hipondoka, Martin; Hamunyelae, Eliakim; Lohmann, Dirk (2024), von Maltitz, Graham P.; Midgley, Guy F.; Veitch, Jennifer; Brümmer, Christian (eds.), "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Southern African Savanna Rangelands: Threats, Impacts and Solutions", Sustainability of Southern African Ecosystems under Global Change, vol. 248, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 407–438, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-10948-5_15, ISBN   978-3-031-10947-8 , retrieved 8 October 2024
116. Schwarz, Kathrin; Finckh, Manfred; Stolter, Caroline (June 2018). "Influence of differently managed bush-encroached sites on the large herbivore distribution in the Namibian Savannah". African Journal of Ecology. 56 (2): 290–300. Bibcode:2018AfJEc..56..290S. doi:10.1111/aje.12451. ISSN   0141-6707.
117. Stanton, Richard A.; Boone, Wesley W.; Soto-Shoender, Jose; Fletcher, Robert J.; Blaum, Niels; McCleery, Robert A. (2018). "Shrub encroachment and vertebrate diversity: a global meta-analysis". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 27 (3): 368–379. Bibcode:2018GloEB..27..368S. doi:10.1111/geb.12675.
118. "Cutting Trees Gives Sage-Grouse Populations a Boost, Scientists Find". Audubon. 10 June 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
119. Abreu, Rodolfo C.; Hoffmann, William A.; Vasconcelos, Heraldo L.; Pilon, Natashi A.; Rossatto, Davi R.; Durigan, Giselda (2017). "The biodiversity cost of carbon sequestration in tropical savanna". Science Advances. 3 (8): e1701284. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E1284A. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1701284 . PMC   5576881 . PMID   28875172.
120. Schooley, Robert L.; Bestelmeyer, Brandon T.; Campanella, Andrea (July 2018). "Shrub encroachment, productivity pulses, and core-transient dynamics of Chihuahuan Desert rodents". Ecosphere. 9 (7). Bibcode:2018Ecosp...9E2330S. doi:10.1002/ecs2.2330. S2CID   89899420.
121. Hering, Robert; Hauptfleisch, Morgan; Geißler, Katja; Marquart, Arnim; Schoenen, Maria; Blaum, Niels (15 January 2019). "Shrub encroachment is not always land degradation: Insights from ground-dwelling beetle species niches along a shrub cover gradient in a semi-arid Namibian savanna". Land Degradation & Development. 30 (1): 14–24. Bibcode:2019LDeDe..30...14H. doi:10.1002/ldr.3197.
122. Wieczorkowski, Jakub D.; Lehmann, Caroline E. R. (September 2022). "Encroachment diminishes herbaceous plant diversity in grassy ecosystems worldwide". Global Change Biology. 28 (18): 5532–5546. Bibcode:2022GCBio..28.5532W. doi:10.1111/gcb.16300. ISSN   1354-1013. PMC   9544121 . PMID   35815499.
123. Mogashoa, R.; Dlamini, P.; Gxasheka, M. (2020). "Grass species richness decreases along a woody plant encroachment gradient in a semi-arid savanna grassland, South Africa". Landscape Ecol. 36 (2): 617–636. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-01150-1. S2CID   228882177.
124. Ratajczak, Zak; Nippert, Jesse B.; Collins, Scott L. (2012). "Woody encroachment decreases diversity across North American grasslands and savannas". Ecology. 93 (4): 697–703. Bibcode:2012Ecol...93..697R. doi: 10.1890/11-1199.1 . PMID   22690619.
125. Zhang, Zhenchao; Liu, Yi-Fan; Cui, Zeng; Huang, Ze; Liu, Yu; Leite, Pedro A. M.; Zhao, Jingxue; Wu, Gao-Lin (30 August 2022). "Shrub encroachment impaired the structure and functioning of alpine meadow communities on the Qinghai – Tibetan Plateau". Land Degradation & Development. 33 (14): 2454–2463. Bibcode:2022LDeDe..33.2454Z. doi:10.1002/ldr.4323. S2CID   251372205.
126. Bleho, Barbara I.; Borkowsky, Christie L.; Grantham, Melissa A.; Hamel, Cary D. (2021). "A 20 y Analysis of Weather and Management Effects on a Small White Lady's-slipper (Cypripedium candidum) Population in Manitoba". The American Midland Naturalist. 185 (1): 32–48. doi:10.1637/0003-0031-185.1.32 (inactive 1 November 2024).
127. She, W.; Bai, Y.; Zhang, Y. (2021). "Nitrogen-enhanced herbaceous competition threatens woody species persistence in a desert ecosystem". Plant Soil. 460 (1–2): 333–345. Bibcode:2021PlSoi.460..333S. doi:10.1007/s11104-020-04810-y. S2CID   231590340.
128. Pilon, Natashi A. L.; Durigan, Giselda; Rickenback, Jess; Pennington, R. Toby; Dexter, Kyle G.; Hoffmann, William A.; Abreu, Rodolfo C. R.; Lehmann, Caroline E. R. (January 2021). Pugnaire, Francisco (ed.). "Shade alters savanna grass layer structure and function along a gradient of canopy cover". Journal of Vegetation Science. 32 (1). Bibcode:2021JVegS..32E2959P. doi:10.1111/jvs.12959. hdl:10871/125013. ISSN   1100-9233.
129. Smit, Izak P. J.; Prins, Herbert H. T. (17 September 2015). Crowther, Mathew S. (ed.). "Predicting the Effects of Woody Encroachment on Mammal Communities, Grazing Biomass and Fire Frequency in African Savannas". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0137857. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1037857S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137857 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   4574768 . PMID   26379249.
130. Atkinson, Holly; Cristescu, Bogdan; Marker, Laurie; Rooney, Nicola (15 September 2022). "Bush Encroachment and Large Carnivore Predation Success in African Landscapes: A Review". Earth. 3 (3): 1010–1026. Bibcode:2022Earth...3.1010A. doi: 10.3390/earth3030058 . ISSN   2673-4834.
131. Nghikembua, Matti T.; Marker, Laurie L.; Brewer, Bruce; Mehtätalo, Lauri; Appiah, Mark; Pappinen, Ari (1 October 2020). "Response of wildlife to bush thinning on the north central freehold farmlands of Namibia". Forest Ecology and Management. 473: 118330. Bibcode:2020ForEM.47318330N. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118330. S2CID   224961400.
132. Atkinson, Holly; Cristescu, Bogdan; Marker, Laurie; Rooney, Nicola (November 2022). "Habitat thresholds for successful predation under landscape change". Landscape Ecology. 37 (11): 2847–2860. Bibcode:2022LaEco..37.2847A. doi:10.1007/s10980-022-01512-x. S2CID   252155630.
133. Misher, Chetan; Vanak, Abi Tamim (15 March 2021). "Occupancy and diet of the Indian desert fox Vulpes vulpes pusilla in a Prosopis juliflora invaded semi-arid grassland". Wildlife Biology. 2021 (1). doi:10.2981/wlb.00781. S2CID   233685264.
134. Chen, Anping; Reperant, Leslie; Fischhoff, Ilya R.; Rubenstein, Daniel I. (July 2021). "Increased vigilance of plains zebras (Equus quagga) in response to more bush coverage in a Kenyan savanna". Climate Change Ecology. 1: 100001. Bibcode:2021CCEco...100001C. doi:10.1016/j.ecochg.2021.100001. S2CID   233936552.
135. Ben-Shahar, Raphael (February 1992). "The Effects of Bush Clearance on African Ungulates in a Semi-Arid Nature Reserve". Ecological Applications. 2 (1): 95–101. Bibcode:1992EcoAp...2...95B. doi:10.2307/1941892. ISSN   1051-0761. JSTOR   1941892. PMID   27759193.
136. Cuellar-Soto, Erika; Johnson, Paul J.; Macdonald, David W.; Barrett, Glyn A.; Segundo, Jorge (30 September 2020). "Woody plant encroachment drives habitat loss for a relict population of a large mammalian herbivore in South America". Therya. 11 (3): 484–494. doi:10.12933/therya-20-1071. S2CID   224951614.
137. Meik, Jesse M; Jeo, Richard M; Mendelson III, Joseph R; Jenks, Kate E (July 2002). "Effects of bush encroachment on an assemblage of diurnal lizard species in central Namibia". Biological Conservation. 106 (1): 29–36. Bibcode:2002BCons.106...29M. doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(01)00226-9.
138. Furtado, Luciana O.; Felicio, Giovana Ribeiro; Lemos, Paula Rocha; Christianini, Alexander V.; Martins, Marcio; Carmignotto, Ana Paula (2021). "Winners and Losers: How Woody Encroachment Is Changing the Small Mammal Community Structure in a Neotropical Savanna". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2021.774744 .
139. Oosthuysen, Morné; Strauss, W. Maartin; Somers, Michael (17 July 2023). "The relationship between mammalian burrow abundance and bankrupt bush (Seriphium plumosum) encroachment". Bothalia - African Biodiversity & Conservation. 53 (1). doi:10.38201/btha.abc.v53.i1.11.
140. Andersen, Erik M.; Steidl, Robert J. (December 2019). "Woody plant encroachment restructures bird communities in semiarid grasslands". Biological Conservation. 240: 108276. Bibcode:2019BCons.24008276A. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108276. S2CID   209587435.
141. Bakker, Kristel K. (2003). "A synthesis of the effect of woody vegetation on grassland nesting birds" (PDF). Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science. 83: 233–236.
142. Coppedge, Bryan R.; Engle, David M.; Masters, Ronald E.; Gregory, Mark S. (February 2004). "Predicting juniper encroachment and CRP effects on avian community dynamics in southern mixed-grass prairie, USA". Biological Conservation. 115 (3): 431–441. Bibcode:2004BCons.115..431C. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00160-5.
143. Schultz, Philippa (2007). Does bush encroachment impact foraging success of the critically endangered Namibian population of the Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres? (Thesis). S2CID   156032881.^{[ page needed ]}
144. White, Joseph D. M.; Stevens, Nicola; Fisher, Jolene T.; Reynolds, Chevonne (June 2024). "Woody plant encroachment drives population declines in 20% of common open ecosystem bird species". Global Change Biology. 30 (6): e17340. Bibcode:2024GCBio..30E7340W. doi:10.1111/gcb.17340. PMID   38840515.
145. Austin, Jane E.; Buhl, Deborah A. (2021). "Breeding Bird Occurrence Across a Gradient of Graminoid- to Shrub-Dominated Fens and Fire Histories". The American Midland Naturalist. 185 (1): 77–109. doi:10.1637/0003-0031-185.1.77 (inactive 1 November 2024).
146. Rosenberg, Kenneth V.; Dokter, Adriaan M.; Blancher, Peter J.; Sauer, John R.; Smith, Adam C.; Smith, Paul A.; Stanton, Jessica C.; Panjabi, Arvind; Helft, Laura; Parr, Michael; Marra, Peter P. (4 October 2019). "Decline of the North American avifauna". Science. 366 (6461): 120–124. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..120R. doi:10.1126/science.aaw1313. PMID   31604313. S2CID   203719982.
147. Hofmeyr, Sally D.; Symes, Craig T.; Underhill, Leslie G. (2014). "Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius Population Trends and Ecology: Insights from South African Citizen Science Data". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e96772. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...996772H. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096772 . PMC   4016007 . PMID   24816839.
148. Lautenbach, Jens M.; Plumb, Reid T.; Robinson, Samantha G.; Hagen, Christian A.; Haukos, David A.; Pitman, James C. (2017). "Lesser Prairie-Chicken Avoidance of Trees in a Grassland Landscape". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 70 (1): 78–86. Bibcode:2017REcoM..70...78L. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2016.07.008 .
149. Davies, Steve (26 May 2021). "Endangered Species Act listing proposed for lesser prairie-chicken". Agri-Pulse.
150. Mahamued, Bruktawit A.; Donald, Paul F.; Collar, Nigel J.; Marsden, Stuart J.; Ndang’Ang’A, Paul Kariuki; Wondafrash, Mengistu; Abebe, Yilma Dellelegn; Bennett, James; Wotton, Simon R.; Gornall, Daniel; Lloyd, Huw (March 2022). "Rangeland loss and population decline of the critically endangered Liben Lark Heteromirafra archeri in southern Ethiopia" (PDF). Bird Conservation International. 32 (1): 64–77. doi:10.1017/S0959270920000696. S2CID   234250627.
151. Spottiswoode, C. N.; Wondafrash, Mengistu; Gabremichael, M. N.; Abebe, Yilma Dellelegn; Mwangi, Mike Anthony Kiragu; Collar, N. J.; Dolman, Paul M. (2009). "Rangeland degradation is poised to cause Africa's first recorded avian extinction". Animal Conservation. 12 (3): 249–257. Bibcode:2009AnCon..12..249S. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00246.x. S2CID   85924528.
152. Murray, Darrel B.; Muir, James P.; Miller, Michael S.; Erxleben, Devin R.; Mote, Kevin D. (March 2021). "Effective Management Practices for Increasing Native Plant Diversity on Mesquite Savanna-Texas Wintergrass-Dominated Rangelands". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 75: 161–169. Bibcode:2021REcoM..75..161M. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2021.01.001. S2CID   232105321.
153. Sirami, Clelia; Monadjem, Ara (2012). "Changes in bird communities in Swaziland savannas between 1998 and 2008 owing to shrub encroachment". Diversity and Distributions. 18 (4): 390–400. Bibcode:2012DivDi..18..390S. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00810.x .
154. Rebollo, María Emilia; Reyes, Marcos Matías; Santillán, Miguel Ángel; López, Fernando Gabriel; Galmes, Maximiliano Adrián; Peñalba, Pablo Díaz; Romero, Isabel María Luque; Bragagnolo, Laura Araceli; Liébana, María Soledad; Grande, Juan Manuel (25 September 2024). "Habitat restoration for the endangered Yellow Cardinal (Gubernatrix cristata): a forest treatment without affecting bird diversity at the center of Argentina". Journal of Ornithology. Bibcode:2024JOrni.tmp..102R. doi:10.1007/s10336-024-02216-6. ISSN   2193-7206.
155. Marquart, A; Sikwane, Ob; Kellner, K (19 September 2023). "The diversity of epigeal insects after the application of the brush packing restoration method following bush-encroachment control in South Africa". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 40 (3): 310–315. Bibcode:2023AJRFS..40..310M. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2052962. S2CID   262087707.
156. Ubach, Andreu; Páramo, F.; Gutiérrez, Cèsar; Stefanescu, Constanti (2020). "Vegetation encroachment drives changes in the composition of butterfly assemblages and species loss in Mediterranean ecosystems". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 13 (2): 151–161. doi:10.1111/icad.12397. S2CID   213753973.
157. Turk, Tyler G.; Okin, Gregory S.; Faist, Akasha M. (3 June 2024). "Connectivity measures across scales differentially influence dryland sediment and seed movement". Restoration Ecology. 32 (6): 14173. Bibcode:2024ResEc..3214173T. doi:10.1111/rec.14173.
158. Farella, Martha M.; Breshears, David D.; Gallery, Rachel E. (December 2020). "Predicting Drivers of Collective Soil Function With Woody Plant Encroachment in Complex Landscapes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 125 (12). Bibcode:2020JGRG..12505838F. doi:10.1029/2020JG005838. ISSN   2169-8953.
159. Xiang, Xingjia; Gibbons, Sean M.; Li, He; Shen, Haihua; Fang, Jingyun; Chu, Haiyan (1 April 2018). "Shrub encroachment is associated with changes in soil bacterial community composition in a temperate grassland ecosystem". Plant and Soil. 425 (1): 539–551. Bibcode:2018PlSoi.425..539X. doi:10.1007/s11104-018-3605-x. ISSN   1573-5036.
160. Zhao, Yanan; Wang, Hongmei; Li, Zhigang; Lin, Gang; Fu, Jingying; Li, Zhili; Zhang, Zhenjie; Jiang, Dong (10 October 2024). "Anthropogenic shrub encroachment has accelerated the degradation of desert steppe soil over the past four decades". Science of the Total Environment. 946: 174487. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.94674487Z. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174487. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   38969107.
161. Collins, Courtney G.; Spasojevic, Marko J.; Alados, Concepción L.; Aronson, Emma L.; Benavides, Juan C.; Cannone, Nicoletta; Caviezel, Chatrina; Grau, Oriol; Guo, Hui; Kudo, Gaku; Kuhn, Nikolas J.; Müllerová, Jana; Phillips, Michala L.; Pombubpa, Nuttapon; Reverchon, Frédérique (December 2020). "Belowground impacts of alpine woody encroachment are determined by plant traits, local climate, and soil conditions". Global Change Biology. 26 (12): 7112–7127. Bibcode:2020GCBio..26.7112C. doi:10.1111/gcb.15340. ISSN   1354-1013. PMID   32902066.
162. Xiang, Xingjia; Gibbons, Sean M.; Li, He; Shen, Haihua; Chu, Haiyan (19 July 2019). "Proximate grassland and shrub-encroached sites show dramatic restructuring of soil bacterial communities". PeerJ. 7: e7304. doi: 10.7717/peerj.7304 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   6644630 . PMID   31355057.
163. Laorden-Camacho, Lucía; Grigulis, Karl; Tello-García, Elena; Lyonnard, Blandine; Colace, Marie Pascale; Gallet, Christiane; Tappeiner, Ulrike; Leitinger, Georg; Lavorel, Sandra (23 September 2024). "Shrub encroachment modifies soil properties through plant resource economic traits". doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4938772/v1 . Retrieved 29 October 2024.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
164. Du, Zhong; Zheng, Huan; Penuelas, Josep; Sardans, Jordi; Deng, Dongzhou; Cai, Xiaohu; Gao, Decai; Nie, Shirui; He, Yanmin; Lü, Xiaotao; Li, Mai-He (15 November 2024). "Shrub encroachment leads to accumulation of C, N, and P in grassland soils and alters C:N:P stoichiometry: A meta-analysis". Science of the Total Environment. 951: 175534. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.95175534D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175534. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   39153629.
165. Wilcox, Bradford P.; Basant, Shishir; Olariu, Horia; Leite, Pedro A. M. (28 September 2022). "Ecohydrological connectivity: A unifying framework for understanding how woody plant encroachment alters the water cycle in drylands". Frontiers in Environmental Science. 10: 934535. Bibcode:2022FrEnS..1034535W. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2022.934535 . ISSN   2296-665X.
166. Jarecke, Karla M.; Zhang, Xi; Keen, Rachel M.; Dumont, Marc; Li, Bonan; Sadayappan, Kayalvizhi; Moreno, Victoria; Ajami, Hoori; Billings, Sharon A.; Flores, Alejandro N.; Hirmas, Daniel R.; Kirk, Matthew F.; Li, Li; Nippert, Jesse B.; Singha, Kamini (November 2024). "Woody Encroachment Modifies Subsurface Structure and Hydrological Function". Ecohydrology: e2731. doi:10.1002/eco.2731.
167. Huxman, Travis E.; Wilcox, Bradford P.; Breshears, David D.; Scott, Russell L.; Snyder, Keirith A.; Small, Eric E.; Hultine, Kevin; Pockman, William T.; Jackson, Robert B. (2005). "Ecohydrological Implications of Woody Plant Encroachment". Ecology. 86 (2): 308–319. Bibcode:2005Ecol...86..308H. doi:10.1890/03-0583. hdl:1969.1/179270. JSTOR   3450949.
168. Hauser, Emma; Sullivan, Pamela L.; Flores, Alejandro N.; Hirmas, Daniel; Billings, Sharon A. (2022). "Global-scale shifts in Anthropocene rooting depths pose unexamined consequences for critical zone functioning". Ess Open Archive ePrints. 105. Bibcode:2022esoar.10511330H. doi:10.1002/essoar.10511330.1.
169. Acharya, Bharat; Kharel, Gehendra; Zou, Chris; Wilcox, Bradford; Halihan, Todd (17 October 2018). "Woody Plant Encroachment Impacts on Groundwater Recharge: A Review". Water. 10 (10): 1466. Bibcode:2018Water..10.1466A. doi: 10.3390/w10101466 . ISSN   2073-4441.
170. Zou, Chris; Twidwell, Dirac; Bielski, Christine; Fogarty, Dillon; Mittelstet, Aaron; Starks, Patrick; Will, Rodney; Zhong, Yu; Acharya, Bharat (1 December 2018). "Impact of Eastern Redcedar Proliferation on Water Resources in the Great Plains USA—Current State of Knowledge". Water. 10 (12): 1768. Bibcode:2018Water..10.1768Z. doi: 10.3390/w10121768 . ISSN   2073-4441.
171. Sandvig, Renee M.; Phillips, Fred M. (August 2006). "Ecohydrological controls on soil moisture fluxes in arid to semiarid vadose zones". Water Resources Research. 42 (8). Bibcode:2006WRR....42.8422S. doi:10.1029/2005WR004644. S2CID   135170525.
172. Seyfried, M. S.; Schwinning, S.; Walvoord, M. A.; Pockman, W. T.; Newman, B. D.; Jackson, R. B.; Phillips, F. M. (February 2005). "Ecohydrological Control of Deep Drainage in Arid and Semiarid Regions". Ecology. 86 (2): 277–287. Bibcode:2005Ecol...86..277S. doi:10.1890/03-0568.
173. Zhang, L.; Dawes, W. R.; Walker, G. R. (March 2001). "Response of mean annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes at catchment scale". Water Resources Research. 37 (3): 701–708. Bibcode:2001WRR....37..701Z. doi:10.1029/2000WR900325. S2CID   140598852.
174. 孙欣; 尹紫良; 赵琬婧; 张治军; 王清波; 蔡体久; 孙晓新 (20 February 2024). 灌木扩张压力下三江平原沼泽植物群落多样性变化及其土壤控制因子 [Changes in plant community diversity and its soil controlling factors in the Sanjiang Plain under the pressure of shrub expansion] (Report). doi:10.13287/j.1001-9332.202404.001.
175. Aldworth, Tiffany A.; Toucher, Michele L. W.; Clulow, Alistair D.; Swemmer, Anthony M. (January 2023). "The Effect of Woody Encroachment on Evapotranspiration in a Semi-Arid Savanna". Hydrology. 10 (1): 9. doi: 10.3390/hydrology10010009 . ISSN   2306-5338.
176. Malapane, Cyncinatia; Dube, Timothy; Dalu, Tatenda (1 January 2025), Dalu, Tatenda; Masese, Frank O. (eds.), "Chapter 26 - Woody plant encroachment and impacts on streamflow recharge in arid and semi-arid environments", Afrotropical Streams and Rivers, Elsevier, pp. 669–689, ISBN   978-0-443-23898-7 , retrieved 19 November 2024
177. Sadayappan, Kayalvizhi; Keen, Rachel; Jarecke, Karla M.; Moreno, Victoria; Nippert, Jesse B.; Kirk, Matthew F.; Sullivan, Pamela L.; Li, Li (December 2023). "Drier streams despite a wetter climate in woody-encroached grasslands". Journal of Hydrology. 627: 130388. Bibcode:2023JHyd..62730388S. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.130388. S2CID   265006263.
178. Lasanta, Teodoro; Cortijos-López, Melani; Errea, M. Paz; Llena, Manel; Sánchez-Navarrete, Pedro; Zabalza, Javier; Nadal-Romero, Estela (January 2024). "Shrub clearing and extensive livestock as a strategy for enhancing ecosystem services in degraded Mediterranean mid-mountain areas". Science of the Total Environment. 906: 167668. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.90667668L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167668. PMID   37820804. S2CID   263905502.
179. Ying, Fan; Li, Xiao-Yan; Li, Liu; Wei, Jun-Qi; Shi, Fangzhong; Yao, Hong-Yun; Liu, Lei (2018). "Plant Harvesting Impacts on Soil Water Patterns and Phenology for Shrub-encroached Grassland". Water. 10 (6): 736. Bibcode:2018Water..10..736F. doi: 10.3390/w10060736 .
180. Leite, Pedro A. M.; Schmidt, Logan M.; Rempe, Daniella M.; Olariu, Horia G.; Walker, John W.; McInnes, Kevin J.; Wilcox, Bradford P. (18 September 2023). "Woody plant encroachment modifies carbonate bedrock: field evidence for enhanced weathering and permeability". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 15431. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1315431L. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42226-7. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   10507015 . PMID   37723242. S2CID   262055469.
181. Rosenthal, W.; Dugas, W.; Bednarz, S.; Dybala, T.; Muttiah, R. (July 2002). Simulation of Brush Removal within Eight Watersheds in Texas. ASAE Annual Meeting. doi:10.13031/2013.10415.
182. Bednarz, Steven T.; Dybala, Tim; Amonett, Carl; Muttiah, Ranjan S.; Rosenthal, Wes; Srinivasan, Raghavan; Arnold, Jeff G. (2003). Brush Management/Water Yield Feasibility Study for Four Watersheds In Texas (Report). Texas Water Resources Institute. hdl:1969.1/6105.
183. Sankey, Temuulen Ts; Leonard, Jackson; Moore, Margaret M; Sankey, Joel B; Belmonte, Adam (December 2021). "Carbon and ecohydrological priorities in managing woody encroachment: UAV perspective 63 years after a control treatment". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (12): 124053. Bibcode:2021ERL....16l4053S. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac3796. S2CID   243916768.
184. Caterina, Giulia L.; Will, Rodney E.; Turton, Donald J.; Wilson, Duncan S.; Zou, Chris B. (August 2014). "Water use of Juniperus virginiana trees encroached into mesic prairies in Oklahoma, USA". Ecohydrology. 7 (4): 1124–1134. Bibcode:2014Ecohy...7.1124C. doi:10.1002/eco.1444. S2CID   128895494.
185. Russell, Adam (29 December 2022). "Woody thickets prevent water recharge in aquifer". AgriLife Today. Retrieved 24 July 2023.
186. "Shrub encroachment on grasslands can increase groundwater recharge". UC Riverside News. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
187. Keen, Rachel M.; Nippert, Jesse B.; Sullivan, Pamela L.; Ratajczak, Zak; Ritchey, Brynn; O’Keefe, Kimberly; Dodds, Walter K. (March 2023). "Impacts of Riparian and Non-riparian Woody Encroachment on Tallgrass Prairie Ecohydrology". Ecosystems. 26 (2): 290–301. Bibcode:2023Ecosy..26..290K. doi:10.1007/s10021-022-00756-7. OSTI   1865276. S2CID   248159372.
188. Kishawi, Yaser; Mittelstet, Aaron R.; Gilmore, Troy E.; Twidwell, Dirac; Roy, Tirthankar; Shrestha, Nawaraj (February 2023). "Impact of Eastern Redcedar encroachment on water resources in the Nebraska Sandhills". Science of the Total Environment. 858 (Pt 1): 159696. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.85859696K. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159696. PMID   36302438. S2CID   253138665.
189. Skhosana, Felix V.; Thenga, Humbelani F.; Mateyisi, Mohau J.; von Maltitz, Graham; Midgley, Guy F.; Stevens, Nicola (March 2023). "Steal the rain: Interception loses and rainfall partitioning by a broad-leaf and a fine-leaf woody encroaching species in a southern African semi-arid savanna". Ecology and Evolution. 13 (3): e9868. Bibcode:2023EcoEv..13E9868S. doi:10.1002/ece3.9868. PMC   10017313 . PMID   36937063.
190. Aldworth, Tiffany A.; Toucher, Michele L.W.; Clulow, Alistair D. (January 2024). "The Potential Impact of Woody Encroachment on Evapotranspiration Losses in South Africa's Savannas: A combined Systematic Review and meta-Analysis Approach". Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology. 24 (1): 25–35. Bibcode:2024EcHyd..24...25A. doi:10.1016/j.ecohyd.2023.08.016. S2CID   261384881.
191. Rebelo, Alanna J.; Holden, Petra B.; Hallowes, Jason; Eady, Bruce; Cullis, James D.S.; Esler, Karen J.; New, Mark G. (July 2022). "The hydrological impacts of restoration: A modelling study of alien tree clearing in four mountain catchments in South Africa". Journal of Hydrology. 610: 127771. Bibcode:2022JHyd..61027771R. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127771.
192. Throop, Heather L.; Archer, Steven R.; McClaran, Mitchel P. (October 2020). "Soil organic carbon in drylands: shrub encroachment and vegetation management effects dwarf those of livestock grazing". Ecological Applications. 30 (7): e02150. Bibcode:2020EcoAp..30E2150T. doi:10.1002/eap.2150. ISSN   1051-0761. PMID   32343858.
193. Ramankutty, Navin; Evan, Amato T.; Monfreda, Chad; Foley, Jonathan A. (March 2008). "Farming the planet: 1. Geographic distribution of global agricultural lands in the year 2000". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 22 (1). Bibcode:2008GBioC..22.1003R. doi:10.1029/2007GB002952. S2CID   128460031.
194. Livestock solutions for climate change. FAO. 2017.^{[ page needed ]}
195. Pendall, E., D. Bachelet, R. T. Conant, B. El Masri, L. B. Flanagan, A. K. Knapp, J. Liu, S. Liu, and S. M.Schaeffer, 2018: Chapter 10: Grasslands. In Second State of the Carbon Cycle Report (SOCCR2): A Sustained Assessment Report [Cavallaro, N., G. Shrestha, R. Birdsey, M. A. Mayes, R. G. Najjar, S. C. Reed, P. Romero-Lankao, and Z. Zhu (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 399-427, https://doi.org/10.7930/SOCCR2.2018.Ch10.
196. Houghton, R. A. (April 2003). "Why are estimates of the terrestrial carbon balance so different?". Global Change Biology. 9 (4): 500–509. Bibcode:2003GCBio...9..500H. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00620.x. S2CID   85836088.
197. Sankey, Temuulen; Shrestha, Rupesh; Sankey, Joel B.; Hardegree, Stuart; Strand, Eva (July 2013). "Lidar-derived estimate and uncertainty of carbon sink in successional phases of woody encroachment". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 118 (3): 1144–1155. Bibcode:2013JGRG..118.1144S. doi:10.1002/jgrg.20088. S2CID   53450745.
198. Naikwade, Pratap (16 September 2021). "Changes in Soil Carbon Sequestration during Woody Plant Encroachment in Arid Ecosystems". Plantae Scientia. 4 (4–5): 266–276. doi:10.32439/ps.v4i4-5.266-276 (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID   239044811.
199. Terrer, C.; Phillips, R. P.; Hungate, B. A.; Rosende, J.; Pett-Ridge, J.; Craig, M. E.; van Groenigen, K. J.; Keenan, T. F.; Sulman, B. N.; Stocker, B. D.; Reich, P. B.; Pellegrini, A. F. A.; Pendall, E.; Zhang, H.; Evans, R. D.; Carrillo, Y.; Fisher, J. B.; Van Sundert, K.; Vicca, Sara; Jackson, R. B. (25 March 2021). "A trade-off between plant and soil carbon storage under elevated CO2". Nature. 591 (7851): 599–603. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03306-8. hdl:10871/124574. PMID   33762765.
200. February, Edmund; Pausch, Johanna; Higgins, Steven I. (1 September 2020). "Major contribution of grass roots to soil carbon pools and CO2 fluxes in a mesic savanna". Plant and Soil. 454 (1): 207–215. doi:10.1007/s11104-020-04649-3. ISSN   1573-5036.
201. Stafford, R.; Chamberlain, B.; Clavey, L.; Gillingham, P.K.; McKain, S.; Morecroft, M.D.; Morrison-Bell, C.; Watts, O., eds. (2021). Nature-based Solutions for Climate Change in the UK: A Report by the British Ecological Society.^{[ page needed ]}
202. Maschler, Julia; Bialic-Murphy, Lalasia; Wan, Joe et al. (2022). Data from: Links across ecological scales: Plant biomass responses to elevated CO2 [Dataset]. Dryad. https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.hhmgqnkk4
203. Barger, Nichole N.; Archer, Steven R.; Campbell, John L.; Huang, Cho-ying; Morton, Jeffery A.; Knapp, Alan K. (10 August 2011). "Woody plant proliferation in North American drylands: A synthesis of impacts on ecosystem carbon balance". Journal of Geophysical Research. 116 (G4). Bibcode:2011JGRG..116.0K07B. doi: 10.1029/2010JG001506 .
204. Goodale, Christine L.; Davidson, Eric A. (August 2002). "Uncertain sinks in the shrubs". Nature. 418 (6898): 593–594. doi:10.1038/418593a. PMID   12167839. S2CID   4428502.
205. "Trees Encroaching Grasslands May Lock Up Less Carbon Than Predicted". ScienceDaily (Press release). Duke University. 9 August 2002.
206. Jackson, Robert B.; Banner, Jay L.; Jobbágy, Esteban G.; Pockman, William T.; Wall, Diana H. (August 2002). "Ecosystem carbon loss with woody plant invasion of grasslands". Nature. 418 (6898): 623–626. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..623J. doi:10.1038/nature00910. PMID   12167857.
207. Mureva, Admore; Chivenge, Pauline; Ward, David (18 March 2021). "Soil organic carbon and nitrogen in soil physical fractions in woody encroached grassland in South African savannas". Soil Research. 59 (6): 595–608. doi:10.1071/SR20245. ISSN   1838-6768.
208. Petrie, M. D.; Collins, S. L.; Swann, A. M.; Ford, P. L.; Litvak, M.E. (March 2015). "Grassland to shrubland state transitions enhance carbon sequestration in the northern Chihuahuan Desert". Global Change Biology. 21 (3): 1226–1235. Bibcode:2015GCBio..21.1226P. doi:10.1111/gcb.12743. PMID   25266205. S2CID   7947435.
209. Throop, Heather L.; Munson, Seth; Hornslein, Nicole; McClaran, Mitchel P. (2 January 2022). "Shrub influence on soil carbon and nitrogen in a semi-arid grassland is mediated by precipitation and largely insensitive to livestock grazing". Arid Land Research and Management. 36 (1): 27–46. Bibcode:2022ALRM...36...27T. doi:10.1080/15324982.2021.1952660.
210. Liu, Yun-Hua; Cheng, Jun-Hui; Schmid, Bernhard; Tang, Li-Song; Sheng, Jian-Dong (April 2020). "Woody plant encroachment may decrease plant carbon storage in grasslands under future drier conditions". Journal of Plant Ecology. 13 (2): 213–223. doi:10.1093/jpe/rtaa003.
211. Puttock, Alan; Dungait, Jennifer A. J.; Macleod, Christopher J. A.; Bol, Roland; Brazier, Richard E. (December 2014). "Woody plant encroachment into grasslands leads to accelerated erosion of previously stable organic carbon from dryland soils" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 119 (12): 2345–2357. Bibcode:2014JGRG..119.2345P. doi:10.1002/2014JG002635. hdl:10871/19415. S2CID   56116211.
212. Scott, Russell L.; Biederman, Joel A.; Hamerlynck, Erik P.; Barron-Gafford, Greg A. (December 2015). "The carbon balance pivot point of southwestern U.S. semiarid ecosystems: Insights from the 21st century drought". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 120 (12): 2612–2624. Bibcode:2015JGRG..120.2612S. doi:10.1002/2015JG003181. S2CID   5031098.
213. Clemmensen, Karina Engelbrecht; Durling, Mikael Brandström; Michelsen, Anders; Hallin, Sara; Finlay, Roger D.; Lindahl, Björn D. (June 2021). "A tipping point in carbon storage when forest expands into tundra is related to mycorrhizal recycling of nitrogen" (PDF). Ecology Letters. 24 (6): 1193–1204. Bibcode:2021EcolL..24.1193C. doi:10.1111/ele.13735. PMID   33754469. S2CID   232323007.
214. Spohn, Marie; Bagchi, Sumanta; Biederman, Lori A.; Borer, Elizabeth T.; Bråthen, Kari Anne; Bugalho, Miguel N.; Caldeira, Maria C.; Catford, Jane A.; Collins, Scott L.; Eisenhauer, Nico; Hagenah, Nicole; Haider, Sylvia; Hautier, Yann; Knops, Johannes M. H.; Koerner, Sally E. (19 October 2023). "The positive effect of plant diversity on soil carbon depends on climate". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 6624. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.6624S. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-42340-0. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   10587103 . PMID   37857640.
215. Barger, Nichole N.; Archer, Steven R.; Campbell, John L.; Huang, Cho-ying; Morton, Jeffery A.; Knapp, Alan K. (10 August 2011). "Woody plant proliferation in North American drylands: A synthesis of impacts on ecosystem carbon balance". Journal of Geophysical Research. 116 (G4). Bibcode:2011JGRG..116.0K07B. doi:10.1029/2010JG001506.
216. Mbaabu, Purity Rima; Olago, Daniel; Gichaba, Maina; Eckert, Sandra; Eschen, René; Oriaso, Silas; Choge, Simon Kosgei; Linders, Theo Edmund Werner; Schaffner, Urs (24 November 2020). "Restoration of degraded grasslands, but not invasion by Prosopis juliflora, avoids trade-offs between climate change mitigation and other ecosystem services". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 20391. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77126-7. PMC   7686326 . PMID   33235254.
217. Pinno, Bradley D.; Wilson, Scott D. (June 2011). "Ecosystem carbon changes with woody encroachment of grassland in the northern Great Plains". Écoscience. 18 (2): 157–163. Bibcode:2011Ecosc..18..157P. doi:10.2980/18-2-3412. S2CID   86413227.
218. Wigley, Benjamin J.; Augustine, David J.; Coetsee, Corli; Ratnam, Jayashree; Sankaran, Mahesh (May 2020). "Grasses continue to trump trees at soil carbon sequestration following herbivore exclusion in a semiarid African savanna" (PDF). Ecology. 101 (5): e03008. Bibcode:2020Ecol..101E3008W. doi:10.1002/ecy.3008. PMID   32027378. S2CID   211046655.
219. Mureva, Admore; Ward, David; Pillay, Tiffany; Chivenge, Pauline; Cramer, Michael (19 October 2018). "Soil Organic Carbon Increases in Semi-Arid Regions while it Decreases in Humid Regions Due to Woody-Plant Encroachment of Grasslands in South Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 15506. Bibcode:2018NatSR...815506M. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-33701-7. PMC   6195563 . PMID   30341313.
220. Alberti, G.; Leronni, V.; Piazzi, M.; Petrella, F.; Mairota, P.; Peressotti, A.; Piussi, P.; Valentini, R.; Gristina, L.; La Mantia, T.; Novara, A.; Rühl, J. (1 December 2011). "Impact of woody encroachment on soil organic carbon and nitrogen in abandoned agricultural lands along a rainfall gradient in Italy". Regional Environmental Change. 11 (4): 917–924. Bibcode:2011REnvC..11..917A. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0229-6. ISSN   1436-378X.
221. Scott, Russell L.; Huxman, Travis E.; Williams, David G.; Goodrich, David C. (February 2006). "Ecohydrological impacts of woody-plant encroachment: seasonal patterns of water and carbon dioxide exchange within a semiarid riparian environment". Global Change Biology. 12 (2): 311–324. Bibcode:2006GCBio..12..311S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01093.x.
222. Zhou, Yong; Bomfim, Barbara; Bond, William J.; Boutton, Thomas W.; Case, Madelon F.; Coetsee, Corli; Davies, Andrew B.; February, Edmund C.; Gray, Emma F.; Silva, Lucas C. R.; Wright, Jamie L.; Staver, A. Carla (August 2023). "Soil carbon in tropical savannas mostly derived from grasses". Nature Geoscience. 16 (8): 710–716. Bibcode:2023NatGe..16..710Z. doi:10.1038/s41561-023-01232-0.
223. Zhou, Yong; Staver, Carla (May 2022). Most carbon is grass-derived in tropical savanna soils, even under woody or forest encroachment. EGU General Assembly 2022. Bibcode:2022EGUGA..24..802Z. doi: 10.5194/egusphere-egu22-802 .
224. Coetsee, C.; February, E. C.; Wigley, B. J.; Kleyn, L.; Strydom, T.; Hedin, L. O.; Watson, H.; Attore, F.; Pellegrini, A. (November 2023). "Soil organic carbon is buffered by grass inputs regardless of woody cover or fire frequency in an African savanna". Journal of Ecology. 111 (11): 2483–2495. Bibcode:2023JEcol.111.2483C. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.14199. S2CID   262101052.
225. Liu, Weilong; Pei, Xiangjun; Peng, Shuming; Wang, Genxu; Smoak, Joseph M.; Duan, Baoli (1 May 2021). "Litter inputs drive increases in topsoil organic carbon after scrub encroachment in an alpine grassland". Pedobiologia. 85–86: 150731. Bibcode:2021Pedob..8550731L. doi:10.1016/j.pedobi.2021.150731. ISSN   0031-4056.
226. Pillay, Tiffany; Ward, David; Mureva, Admore; Cramer, Michael (1 May 2021). "Differential effects of nutrient addition and woody plant encroachment on grassland soil, litter and plant dynamics across a precipitation gradient". Pedobiologia. 85–86: 150726. Bibcode:2021Pedob..8550726P. doi:10.1016/j.pedobi.2021.150726. ISSN   0031-4056.
227. Leitner, Monica; Davies, Andrew B.; Parr, Catherine L.; Eggleton, Paul; Robertson, Mark P. (June 2018). "Woody encroachment slows decomposition and termite activity in an African savanna". Global Change Biology. 24 (6): 2597–2606. Bibcode:2018GCBio..24.2597L. doi:10.1111/gcb.14118. hdl:2263/64671. PMID   29516645.
228. Abril, A.; Barttfeld, P.; Bucher, E.H. (February 2005). "The effect of fire and overgrazing disturbes on soil carbon balance in the Dry Chaco forest". Forest Ecology and Management. 206 (1–3): 399–405. Bibcode:2005ForEM.206..399A. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.11.014.
229. Yusuf, Hasen M.; Treydte, Anna C.; Sauerborn, Jauchim (13 October 2015). "Managing Semi-Arid Rangelands for Carbon Storage: Grazing and Woody Encroachment Effects on Soil Carbon and Nitrogen". PLOS ONE. 10 (10): e0109063. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1009063Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109063 . PMC   4603954 . PMID   26461478.
230. Zhou, Yong; Boutton, Thomas W.; Wu, X. Ben (November 2017). "Soil carbon response to woody plant encroachment: importance of spatial heterogeneity and deep soil storage". Journal of Ecology. 105 (6): 1738–1749. Bibcode:2017JEcol.105.1738Z. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12770.
231. Hauser, Emma; Sullivan, Pamela L; Flores, Alejandro N.; Billings, Sharon A (16 September 2020). Global-scale shifts in Anthropocene rooting depths pose unexamined consequences in critical zone functioning (Preprint). doi:10.1002/essoar.10504154.1.
232. Lützow, M. v.; Kögel-Knabner, I.; Ekschmitt, K.; Matzner, E.; Guggenberger, G.; Marschner, B.; Flessa, H. (August 2006). "Stabilization of organic matter in temperate soils: mechanisms and their relevance under different soil conditions – a review". European Journal of Soil Science. 57 (4): 426–445. Bibcode:2006EuJSS..57..426L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.2006.00809.x.
233. Zhou, Yong; Boutton, Thomas W.; Wu, X. Ben (November 2017). "Soil carbon response to woody plant encroachment: importance of spatial heterogeneity and deep soil storage". Journal of Ecology. 105 (6): 1738–1749. Bibcode:2017JEcol.105.1738Z. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12770.
234. Li, He; Shen, Haihua; Chen, Leiyi; Liu, Taoyu; Hu, Huifeng; Zhao, Xia; Zhou, Luhong; Zhang, Pujin; Fang, Jingyun (2016). "Effects of shrub encroachment on soil organic carbon in global grasslands". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 28974. Bibcode:2016NatSR...628974L. doi:10.1038/srep28974. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   4937411 . PMID   27388145.
235. Morford, Scott L.; Allred, Brady W.; Twidwell, Dirac; Jones, Matthew O.; Maestas, Jeremy D.; Roberts, Caleb P.; Naugle, David E. (December 2022). "Herbaceous production lost to tree encroachment in United States rangelands". Journal of Applied Ecology. 59 (12): 2971–2982. Bibcode:2022JApEc..59.2971M. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14288.
236. Anadón, José D.; Sala, Osvaldo E.; Turner, B. L.; Bennett, Elena M. (2 September 2014). "Effect of woody-plant encroachment on livestock production in North and South America". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (35): 12948–12953. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11112948A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1320585111 . PMC   4156688 . PMID   25136084.
237. Klerk, J. N. De (2004). Bush Encroachment in Namibia: Report on Phase 1 of the Bush Encroachment Research, Monitoring, and Management Project. Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Directorate of Environmental Affairs. ISBN   978-0-86976-620-0.^{[ page needed ]}
238. Oba, Gufu; Post, Eric; Syvertsen, Per Ole; Stenseth, Nils C. (2000). "Bush cover and range condition assessments in relation to landscape and grazing in southern Ethiopia". Landscape Ecology. 15 (6): 535–546. Bibcode:2000LaEco..15..535O. doi:10.1023/A:1008106625096. S2CID   21986173.
239. van Wijngaarden, Willem (1985). Elephants, Trees, Grass, Grazers: Relationships Between Climate, Soils, Vegetation, and Large Herbivores in a Semi-arid Savanna Ecosystem (Tsavo, Kenya). International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences. ISBN   978-90-6164-048-6. OCLC   870274791.^{[ page needed ]}
240. Yu, Peng; Qiuying, Zhang; Yuanzhan, Chen; Ning, Xu; Yunfeng, Qiao; Chao, Tian; Hirwa, Hubert; Diop, Salif; Guisse, Aliou; Fadong, Li (12 May 2021). "Resilience, Adaptability, and Regime Shifts Thinking: A Perspective of Dryland Socio-Ecology System". Journal of Resources and Ecology. 12 (3). doi:10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2021.03.007. S2CID   234474418.
241. Turner, B. L.; Clark, William C.; Kates, Robert W.; Richards, John F.; Mathews, Jessica T.; Meyer, William B. (1993). The Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere over the Past 300 Years. CUP Archive. ISBN   978-0-521-44630-3. OCLC   20294746.^{[ page needed ]}
242. Martens, Carola; Hickler, Thomas; Davis-Reddy, Claire; Engelbrecht, Francois; Higgins, Steven I.; von Maltitz, Graham P.; Midgley, Guy F.; Pfeiffer, Mirjam; Scheiter, Simon (January 2021). "Large uncertainties in future biome changes in Africa call for flexible climate adaptation strategies". Global Change Biology. 27 (2): 340–358. Bibcode:2021GCBio..27..340M. doi:10.1111/gcb.15390. PMID   33037718. S2CID   222255994.
243. Singini, Edith J.; McMillan, Bridgette M.; Newete, Solomon W.; Witkowski, Ed T. F. (1 January 2025). "Ecological drivers of Seriphium plumosum encroachment: Implications for management and conservation". South African Journal of Botany. 176: 21–28. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2024.11.001. ISSN   0254-6299.
244. Marquart, A; Slooten, E; Jordaan, Fp; Vermeulen, M; Kellner, K (19 September 2023). "The control of the encroaching shrub Seriphium plumosum ( L. ) Thunb. (Asteraceae) and the response of the grassy layer in a South African semi-arid rangeland". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 40 (3): 316–321. Bibcode:2023AJRFS..40..316M. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2086620. ISSN   1022-0119.
245. Gray, Emma Fiona; Bond, William John (2013). "Will woody plant encroachment impact the visitor experience and economy of conservation areas?". Koedoe. 55 (1). Art. #1106. doi: 10.4102/koedoe.v55i1.1106 .
246. Dube, Kaitano; Chikodzi, David; Nhamo, Godwell; Chapungu, Lazarus (15 December 2023). "Climate and conservation challenges facing Marakele National Park and their implications for tourism". Cogent Social Sciences. 9 (2). doi:10.1080/23311886.2023.2282705.
247. Noden, Bruce H.; Tanner, Evan P.; Polo, John A.; Fuhlendorf, Sam D. (14 June 2021). "Invasive woody plants as foci of tick-borne pathogens: eastern redcedar in the southern Great Plains". Journal of Vector Ecology. 46 (1): 12–18. doi:10.52707/1081-1710-46.1.12. hdl:11244/335175. PMID   35229576.
248. Loss, Scott R.; Noden, Bruce H.; Fuhlendorf, Samuel D. (February 2022). "Woody plant encroachment and the ecology of vector-borne diseases". Journal of Applied Ecology. 59 (2): 420–430. Bibcode:2022JApEc..59..420L. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14083. S2CID   244436096.
249. Cho, Mee-Hyun; Yang, Ah-Ryeon; Baek, Eun-Hyuk; Kang, Sarah M.; Jeong, Su-Jong; Kim, Jin Young; Kim, Baek-Min (May 2018). "Vegetation-cloud feedbacks to future vegetation changes in the Arctic regions". Climate Dynamics. 50 (9–10): 3745–3755. Bibcode:2018ClDy...50.3745C. doi:10.1007/s00382-017-3840-5. S2CID   54037132.
250. Ge, Jianjun; Zou, Chris (27 August 2013). "Impacts of woody plant encroachment on regional climate in the southern Great Plains of the United States". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 118 (16): 9093–9104. Bibcode:2013JGRD..118.9093G. doi:10.1002/jgrd.50634. S2CID   131616235.
251. Lima, Kyle A.; Stevens, Nicola; Wisely, Samantha M.; Fletcher, Robert J Jr.; Monadjem, Ara; Austin, James D.; Mahlaba, Themb'alilahlwa; McCleery, Robert A. (September 2021). "Landscape Heterogeneity and Woody Encroachment Decrease Mesocarnivore Scavenging in a Savanna Agroecosystem". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 78: 104–111. Bibcode:2021REcoM..78..104L. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2021.06.003. S2CID   238722540.
252. Raymundo, Diego; Oliveira-Neto, Norberto Emídio; Martini, Vitor; Araújo, Thayane Nogueira; Calaça, Daniela; de Oliveira, Denis Coelho (June 2022). "Assessing woody plant encroachment by comparing adult and juvenile tree components in a Brazilian savanna". Flora. 291: 152060. Bibcode:2022FMDFE.29152060R. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2022.152060. S2CID   248140397.
253. Chiara, Casiraghi; Francesco, Malfasi; Nicoletta, Cannone (August 2024). "A multicriteria protocol for the set-up and long-term monitoring of a pilot project for the restoration of alpine vegetation threatened by climate change". Ecological Indicators. 165: 112204. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2024.112204.
254. Gcayi, Siphokazi Ruth; Adelabu, Samuel Adewale; Nduku, Lwandile; Chirima, Johannes George (23 September 2024). "A bibliometric analysis for remote sensing applications in bush encroachment mapping of grassland and savanna ecosystems". Applied Geomatics. 16 (4): 881–896. Bibcode:2024AppGm..16..881G. doi:10.1007/s12518-024-00589-0. ISSN   1866-928X.
255. Goslee, S.C; Havstad, K.M; Peters, D.P.C; Rango, A; Schlesinger, W.H (August 2003). "High-resolution images reveal rate and pattern of shrub encroachment over six decades in New Mexico, U.S.A.". Journal of Arid Environments. 54 (4): 755–767. Bibcode:2003JArEn..54..755G. doi:10.1006/jare.2002.1103.
256. Maphanga, Thabang; Dube, Timothy; Shoko, Cletah; Sibanda, Mbulisi (January 2022). "Advancements in the satellite sensing of the impacts of climate and variability on bush encroachment in savannah rangelands". Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment. 25: 100689. Bibcode:2022RSASE..2500689M. doi:10.1016/j.rsase.2021.100689. hdl:10566/9094. S2CID   245726355.
257. Zhao, Yujin; Liu, Xiaoliang; Wang, Yang; Zheng, Zhaoju; Zheng, Shuxia; Zhao, Dan; Bai, Yongfei (September 2021). "UAV-based individual shrub aboveground biomass estimation calibrated against terrestrial LiDAR in a shrub-encroached grassland". International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 101: 102358. Bibcode:2021IJAEO.10102358Z. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2021.102358.
258. Olariu, Horia G.; Malambo, Lonesome; Popescu, Sorin C.; Virgil, Clifton; Wilcox, Bradford P. (30 March 2022). "Woody Plant Encroachment: Evaluating Methodologies for Semiarid Woody Species Classification from Drone Images". Remote Sensing. 14 (7): 1665. Bibcode:2022RemS...14.1665O. doi: 10.3390/rs14071665 . ISSN   2072-4292.
259. Karakizi, Christina; Okujeni, Akpona; Sofikiti, Eleni; Tsironis, Vasileios; Psalta, Athina; Karantzalos, Konstantinos; Hostert, Patrick; Symeonakis, Elias (2024). "Mapping savannah woody vegetation at the species level with multispecral drone and hyperspectral EnMAP data". arXiv: 2407.11404 [cs.LG].
260. Soubry, Irini; Robinov, L.; Chu, T.; Guo, X. (13 December 2022). "Mapping shrub cover in grasslands with an object-based approach and investigating the connection to topo-edaphic factors". Geocarto International. 37 (27): 16926–16950. Bibcode:2022GeoIn..3716926S. doi:10.1080/10106049.2022.2120549. S2CID   252107151.
261. Graw, Valerie; Oldenburg, Carsten; Dubovyk, Olena; Graw, Valerie; Oldenburg, Carsten; Dubovyk, Olena (2016). Bush Encroachment Mapping for Africa: Multi-scale analysis with remote sensing and GIS (Report). doi:10.22004/ag.econ.241266. SSRN   2807811.
262. "A decision analysis framework for development planning and performance measurement: application to land restoration investments". World Agroforestry | Transforming Lives and Landscapes with Trees. January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
263. Pu, Yihan; Wilmshurst, John F.; Guo, Xulin (31 December 2024). "Separating Shrub Cover From Green Vegetation in Grasslands Using Hyperspectral Vegetation Indices". Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing. 50 (1). Bibcode:2024CaJRS..5047630P. doi:10.1080/07038992.2024.2347630.
264. Ludwig, Annika; Meyer, Hanna; Nauss, Thomas (August 2016). "Automatic classification of Google Earth images for a larger scale monitoring of bush encroachment in South Africa". International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 50: 89–94. Bibcode:2016IJAEO..50...89L. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2016.03.003.
265. Wessels, Konrad; Mathieu, Renaud; Knox, Nichola; Main, Russell; Naidoo, Laven; Steenkamp, Karen (January 2019). "Mapping and Monitoring Fractional Woody Vegetation Cover in the Arid Savannas of Namibia Using LiDAR Training Data, Machine Learning, and ALOS PALSAR Data". Remote Sensing. 11 (22): 2633. Bibcode:2019RemS...11.2633W. doi: 10.3390/rs11222633 .
266. Smith, Joseph T.; Kleinhesselink, Andrew R.; Maestas, Jeremy D.; Morford, Scott L.; Naugle, David E.; White, Connor D. (November 2024). "Using Satellite Remote Sensing to Assess Shrubland Vegetation Responses to Large-Scale Juniper Removal in the Northern Great Basin". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 97: 123–134. Bibcode:2024REcoM..97..123S. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2024.08.010.
267. Schmidt, Hailey E.; Osorio Leyton, Javier M.; Popescu, Sorin C.; Noa Yarasca, Efrain; Sarkar, Sayantan; Wilcox, Bradford P. (July 2024). "Connecting the Dots: How Ecohydrological Connectivity Can Support Remote Sensing and Modeling to Inform Management of Woody Plant Encroachment". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 95: 84–99. Bibcode:2024REcoM..95...84S. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2024.05.001.
268. Marggraff, Pascal; Venter, Martin Philip (31 March 2020). "Monitoring of Namibian Encroacher Bush Using Computer Vision". AgriEngineering. 2 (2): 213–225. doi: 10.3390/agriengineering2020013 . ISSN   2624-7402.
269. Hottman, M.T.; O'Connor, T.G. (July 1999). "Vegetation change over 40 years in the Weenen/Muden area, KwaZulu-Natal: evidence from photo-panoramas". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 16 (2–3): 71–88. Bibcode:1999AJRFS..16...71H. doi:10.2989/10220119909485721.
270. Rohde, Rick; Hoffman, M. Timm; Sullivan, Sian (2021). "Environmental Change in Namibia". Negotiating Climate Change in Crisis. pp. 173–188. doi: 10.11647/obp.0265.13 . ISBN   978-1-80064-260-7.
271. Tabares, Ximena; Ratzmann, Gregor; Kruse, Stefan; Theuerkauf, Martin; Mapani, Benjamin; Herzschuh, Ulrike (July 2021). "Relative pollen productivity estimates of savanna taxa from southern Africa and their application to reconstruct shrub encroachment during the last century". The Holocene. 31 (7): 1100–1111. Bibcode:2021Holoc..31.1100T. doi:10.1177/09596836211003193. S2CID   233680350.
272. Platform, Rangeland Analysis. "Rangeland Analysis Platform". Rangeland Analysis Platform. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
273. Walker, Kayla (16 December 2022). "Rangeland Analysis Platform Offers Ranchers Decision Support". tsln.com. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
274. "Biomass Quantification Tool – Namibia Biomass industry Group (N-BiG)". 16 June 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2023.
275. Hao, Guang; Yang, Nan; Dong, Ke; Xu, Yujuan; Ding, Xinfeng; Shi, Xinjian; Chen, Lei; Wang, Jinlong; Zhao, Nianxi; Gao, Yubao (10 May 2021). "Shrub-encroached grassland as an alternative stable state in semiarid steppe regions: Evidence from community stability and assembly". Land Degradation & Development. 32 (10): 3142–3153. Bibcode:2021LDeDe..32.3142H. doi:10.1002/ldr.3975. ISSN   1085-3278. S2CID   235543749.
276. Farmer´s Weekly (6 July 2023). "Is fire really the answer to bush encroachment?". Farmer's Weekly. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
277. Buisson, Elise; Archibald, Sally; Fidelis, Alessandra; Suding, Katharine N. (5 August 2022). "Ancient grasslands guide ambitious goals in grassland restoration". Science. 377 (6606): 594–598. Bibcode:2022Sci...377..594B. doi:10.1126/science.abo4605. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   35926035. S2CID   251349859.
278. Briggs, John M.; Knapp, Alan K.; Blair, John M.; Heisler, Jana L.; Hoch, Greg A.; Lett, Michelle S.; McCARRON, James K. (2005). "An Ecosystem in Transition: Causes and Consequences of the Conversion of Mesic Grassland to Shrubland". BioScience. 55 (3): 243. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0243:AEITCA]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0006-3568. S2CID   85568312.
279. Ma, Miaojun; Collins, Scott L.; Ratajczak, Zak; Du, Guozhen (2021). "Soil Seed Banks, Alternative Stable State Theory, and Ecosystem Resilience". BioScience. 71 (7): 697–707. doi:10.1093/biosci/biab011. ISSN   0006-3568.
280. Giles, André L.; Flores, Bernardo M.; Rezende, Andréia Alves; Weiser, Veridiana de Lara; Cavassan, Osmar (August 2021). "Thirty years of clear-cutting maintain diversity and functional composition of woody-encroached Neotropical savannas". Forest Ecology and Management. 494: 119356. Bibcode:2021ForEM.49419356G. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119356. S2CID   236300850.
281. Smit, G.N (June 2004). "An approach to tree thinning to structure southern African savannas for long-term restoration from bush encroachment". Journal of Environmental Management. 71 (2): 179–191. Bibcode:2004JEnvM..71..179S. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2004.02.005. PMID   15135951.
282. Eldridge, David J.; Ding, Jingyi (March 2021). "Remove or retain: ecosystem effects of woody encroachment and removal are linked to plant structural and functional traits". New Phytologist. 229 (5): 2637–2646. Bibcode:2021NewPh.229.2637E. doi:10.1111/nph.17045. ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   33118178. S2CID   226048407.
283. Mushinski, Ryan M.; Zhou, Yong; Hyodo, Ayumi; Casola, Claudio; Boutton, Thomas W. (1 January 2024). "Interactions of long-term grazing and woody encroachment can shift soil biogeochemistry and microbiomes in savanna ecosystems". Geoderma. 441: 116733. Bibcode:2024Geode.44116733M. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116733. ISSN   0016-7061.
284. Bestelmeyer, Brandon T.; Ash, Andrew; Brown, Joel R.; Densambuu, Bulgamaa; Fernández-Giménez, María; Johanson, Jamin; Levi, Matthew; Lopez, Dardo; Peinetti, Raul (2017), Briske, David D. (ed.), "State and Transition Models: Theory, Applications, and Challenges", Rangeland Systems, Springer Series on Environmental Management, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 303–345, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_9, ISBN   978-3-319-46707-8 , retrieved 10 January 2022
285. "Overview of State & Transition Models | Rangelands Gateway". rangelandsgateway.org. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
286. Dixon, Cinnamon M.; Robertson, Kevin M.; Ulyshen, Michael D.; Sikes, Benjamin A. (November 2021). "Pine savanna restoration on agricultural landscapes: The path back to native savanna ecosystem services". Science of the Total Environment. 818: 151715. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151715. hdl:1808/33611. PMID   34800452. S2CID   244397677.
287. Marquart, Arnim; Van Coller, Helga; Van Staden, Nanette; Kellner, Klaus (January 2023). "Impacts of selective bush control on herbaceous diversity in wildlife and cattle land use areas in a semi-arid Kalahari savanna". Journal of Arid Environments. 208: 104881. Bibcode:2023JArEn.208j4881M. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2022.104881. S2CID   252966565.
288. Kambongi, T.; Heyns, L.; Rodenwoldt, D.; Edwards, Sarah (8 February 2021). "A description of daytime resting sites used by brown hyaenas (Parahyaena brunnea) from a high-density, enclosed population in north-central Namibia". Namibian Journal of Environment. 5.
289. Choi, Daniel Y.; Fish, Alexander C.; Moorman, Christopher E.; DePerno, Christopher S.; Schillaci, Jessica M. (19 February 2021). "Breeding-Season Survival, Home-Range Size, and Habitat Selection of Female Bachman's Sparrows". Southeastern Naturalist. 20 (1). doi:10.1656/058.020.0112. S2CID   232326817.
290. O'Connor, Timothy G.; Kuyler, P.; Kirkman, Kevin P.; Corcoran, B. (11 August 2010). "Which grazing management practices are most appropriate for maintaining biodiversity in South African grassland?". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 27 (2): 67–76. Bibcode:2010AJRFS..27...67O. doi:10.2989/10220119.2010.502646. ISSN   1022-0119. S2CID   84555081.
291. Webb, Nicholas P.; Stokes, Christopher J.; Marshall, Nadine A. (October 2013). "Integrating biophysical and socio-economic evaluations to improve the efficacy of adaptation assessments for agriculture". Global Environmental Change. 23 (5): 1164–1177. Bibcode:2013GEC....23.1164W. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.04.007.
292. Ernst, Yolandi; Kilian, W.; Versfeld, W.; van Aarde, Rudi J. (February 2006). "Elephants and low rainfall alter woody vegetation in Etosha National Park, Namibia". Journal of Arid Environments. 64 (3): 412–421. Bibcode:2006JArEn..64..412D. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.06.015. ISSN   0140-1963.
293. Zimmer, Katrin; Amputu, Vistorina; Schwarz, Lisa-Maricia; Linstädter, Anja; Sandhage-Hofmann, Alexandra (27 January 2024). "Soil characteristics within vegetation patches are sensitive indicators of savanna rangeland degradation in central Namibia". Geoderma Regional. 36: e00771. Bibcode:2024GeodR..3600771Z. doi:10.1016/j.geodrs.2024.e00771. ISSN   2352-0094.
294. Ward, David; Pillay, Tiffany; Mbongwa, Siphesihle; Kirkman, Kevin; Hansen, Erik; Van Achterbergh, Matthew (1 March 2022). "Reinvasion of Native Invasive Trees After a Tree-Thinning Experiment in an African Savanna". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 81: 69–77. Bibcode:2022REcoM..81...69W. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2022.01.004. ISSN   1550-7424. S2CID   246980476.
295. Musekiwa, Nyasha B.; Angombe, Simon T.; Kambatuku, Jack; Mudereri, Bester Tawona; Chitata, Tavengwa (1 March 2022). "Can encroached rangelands enhance carbon sequestration in the African Savannah?". Trees, Forests and People. 7: 100192. Bibcode:2022TFP.....700192M. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2022.100192. ISSN   2666-7193.
296. Smit, Izak P. J.; Asner, Gregory P.; Govender, Navashni; Vaughn, Nicholas R.; van Wilgen, Brian W. (2016). "An examination of the potential efficacy of high-intensity fires for reversing woody encroachment in savannas". Journal of Applied Ecology. 53 (5): 1623–1633. Bibcode:2016JApEc..53.1623S. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12738 .
297. Twidwell, Dirac; Fuhlendorf, Samuel D.; Taylor, Charles A.; Rogers, William E. (2013). "Refining thresholds in coupled fire-vegetation models to improve management of encroaching woody plants in grasslands". J. Appl. Ecol. 50 (3): 603–613. Bibcode:2013JApEc..50..603T. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.12063 .
298. Fuhlendorf, Samuel D.; Engle, David M.; Kerby, Jay; Hamilton, Robert (2009). "Pyric Herbivory: Rewilding Landscapes through the Recoupling of Fire and Grazing". Conservation Biology. 23 (3): 588–598. Bibcode:2009ConBi..23..588F. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01139.x. JSTOR   29738775. PMID   19183203. S2CID   205657781.
299. Lohmann, Dirk; Tietjen, Britta; Blaum, Niels; Joubert, David Francois; Jeltsch, Florian (August 2014). "Prescribed fire as a tool for managing shrub encroachment in semi-arid savanna rangelands". Journal of Arid Environments. 107: 49–56. Bibcode:2014JArEn.107...49L. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2014.04.003.
300. Nippert, Jesse B.; Telleria, Lizeth; Blackmore, Pamela; Taylor, Jeffrey H.; O'Connor, Rory C. (September 2021). "Is a Prescribed Fire Sufficient to Slow the Spread of Woody Plants in an Infrequently Burned Grassland? A Case Study in Tallgrass Prairie". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 78: 79–89. Bibcode:2021REcoM..78...79N. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2021.05.007. OSTI   1865317. S2CID   238697145.
301. Novak, Erin N.; Bertelsen, Michelle; Davis, Dick; Grobert, Devin M.; Lyons, Kelly G.; Martina, Jason P.; McCaw, W. Matt; O'Toole, Matthew; Veldman, Joseph W. (September 2021). "Season of prescribed fire determines grassland restoration outcomes after fire exclusion and overgrazing". Ecosphere. 12 (9). Bibcode:2021Ecosp..12E3730N. doi:10.1002/ecs2.3730. S2CID   239715704.
302. Nieman, Willem A.; Van Wilgen, Brian W.; Leslie, Alison J. (15 February 2021). "A review of fire management practices in African savanna-protected areas". Koedoe. 63 (1). doi:10.4102/koedoe.v63i1.1655. S2CID   233925111.
303. Ansley, R. James; Boutton, Thomas W.; Hollister, Emily B. (December 2021). "Can prescribed fires restore C 4 grasslands invaded by a C 3 woody species and a co-dominant C 3 grass species?". Ecosphere. 12 (12). Bibcode:2021Ecosp..12E3885A. doi:10.1002/ecs2.3885. S2CID   245205310.
304. Puttick, James R; Timm Hoffman, M; O’Connor, Timothy G (2 January 2022). "The effect of changes in human drivers on the fire regimes of South African grassland and savanna environments over the past 100 years". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (1): 107–123. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39..107P. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2033322. S2CID   247102250.
305. Cowley, Robyn A.; Hearnden, Mark H.; Joyce, Karen E.; Tovar-Valencia, Miguel; Cowley, Trisha M.; Pettit, Caroline L.; Dyer, Rodd M. (2014). "How hot? How often? Getting the fire frequency and timing right for optimal management of woody cover and pasture composition in northern Australian grazed tropical savannas. Kidman Springs Fire Experiment 1993–2013". The Rangeland Journal. 36 (4): 323. doi:10.1071/RJ14030.
306. Archibald, Sally (5 June 2016). "Managing the human component of fire regimes: lessons from Africa". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371 (1696): 20150346. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0346. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   4874421 . PMID   27216516.
307. Roques, Kim G.; O'Connor, Timothy Gordon; Watkinson, Andrew Richard (2001). "Dynamics of shrub encroachment in an African savanna: relative influences of fire, herbivory, rainfall and density dependence: Dynamics and causes of shrub encroachment". Journal of Applied Ecology. 38 (2): 268–280. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00567.x.
308. Trollope, Westleigh Matthew (1974). "Role of fire in preventing bush encroachment in the Eastern Cape". Proceedings of the Annual Congresses of the Grassland Society of Southern Africa. 9 (1): 67–72. doi:10.1080/00725560.1974.9648722. ISSN   0072-5560.
309. Wedel, Emily R.; Nippert, Jesse B.; Hartnett, David C. (6 July 2021). "Fire and browsing interact to alter intra-clonal stem dynamics of an encroaching shrub in tallgrass prairie". Oecologia. 196 (4): 1039–1048. Bibcode:2021Oecol.196.1039W. doi:10.1007/s00442-021-04980-1. ISSN   0029-8549. PMID   34228246. S2CID   235743852.
310. Capozzelli, Jane F.; Miller, James R.; Debinski, Diane M.; Schacht, Walter H. (February 2020). "Restoring the fire–grazing interaction promotes tree–grass coexistence by controlling woody encroachment". Ecosphere. 11 (2). Bibcode:2020Ecosp..11E2993C. doi:10.1002/ecs2.2993. ISSN   2150-8925. S2CID   214311300.
311. Twidwell, Dirac; Fogarty, Dillon T. (2021). "A guide to reducing risk and vulnerability to woody encroachment in rangelands" (PDF). University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
312. Bielski, Christine H.; Scholtz, Rheinhardt; Donovan, Victoria M.; Allen, Craig R.; Twidwell, Dirac (August 2021). "Overcoming an "irreversible" threshold: A 15-year fire experiment". Journal of Environmental Management. 291: 112550. Bibcode:2021JEnvM.29112550B. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112550. PMID   33965707. S2CID   234344199.
313. Alfaro Reyna, Teresa; De La Cruz Domínguez, Juan Carlos; Aguirre Gutierrez, Carlos Alberto; Luna Luna, Miguel; Flores-Rentería, Dulce; Delgado Balbuena, Josué (4 December 2024), Prescribed Burns to Reduce Early-Stage Shrub Encroachment in Semiarid Grasslands, doi: 10.20944/preprints202412.0396.v1 , retrieved 9 December 2024
314. Preiss, Virginia D.; Wonkka, Carissa L.; McGranahan, Devan A.; Lodge, Alexandra G.; Dickinson, Matthew B.; Kavanagh, Kathleen L.; Starns, Heath D.; Tolleson, Douglas R.; Treadwell, Morgan L.; Twidwell, Dirac; Rogers, William E. (October 2023). "Exotic herbivores and fire energy drive standing herbaceous biomass but do not alter compositional patterns in a semiarid savanna ecosystem". Applied Vegetation Science. 26 (4). Bibcode:2023AppVS..26E2749P. doi:10.1111/avsc.12749. ISSN   1402-2001. S2CID   264398347.
315. Strydom, Tercia; Smit, Izak P. J.; Govender, Navashni; Coetsee, Corli; Singh, Jenia; Davies, Andrew B.; van Wilgen, Brian W. (15 February 2023). "High-intensity fires may have limited medium-term effectiveness for reversing woody plant encroachment in an African savanna". Journal of Applied Ecology. 60 (4): 661–672. Bibcode:2023JApEc..60..661S. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14362. ISSN   0021-8901. S2CID   256966724.
316. Case, Madelon F.; Staver, A. Carla (June 2017). James, Jeremy (ed.). "Fire prevents woody encroachment only at higher-than-historical frequencies in a South African savanna". Journal of Applied Ecology. 54 (3): 955–962. Bibcode:2017JApEc..54..955C. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12805. ISSN   0021-8901.
317. Scholtz, Rheinhardt; Donovan, Victoria M; Strydom, Tercia; Wonkka, Carissa; Kreuter, Urs P; Rogers, William E; Taylor, Charles; Smit, Izak PJ; Govender, Navashni; Trollope, Winston; Fogarty, Dillon T (2 January 2022). "High-intensity fire experiments to manage shrub encroachment: lessons learned in South Africa and the United States". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (1): 148–159. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39..148S. doi:10.2989/10220119.2021.2008004. hdl:2263/86752. ISSN   1022-0119. S2CID   246886163.
318. Hempson, Gareth P.; Archibald, Sally; Bond, William J. (8 December 2017). "The consequences of replacing wildlife with livestock in Africa". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 17196. Bibcode:2017NatSR...717196H. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-17348-4. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   5722938 . PMID   29222494.
319. Venter, Zander S.; Hawkins, Heidi-Jayne; Cramer, Michael D. (2017). "Implications of historical interactions between herbivory and fire for rangeland management in African savannas". Ecosphere. 8 (10): e01946. Bibcode:2017Ecosp...8E1946V. doi:10.1002/ecs2.1946. ISSN   2150-8925.
320. Voysey, Michael D.; Archibald, Sally; Bond, William J.; Donaldson, Jason E.; Carla Staver, A.; Greve, Michelle (February 2021). Sankaran, Mahesh (ed.). "The role of browsers in maintaining the openness of savanna grazing lawns". Journal of Ecology. 109 (2): 913–926. Bibcode:2021JEcol.109..913V. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13518. ISSN   0022-0477.
321. Grande, Daniel (2013). "Endozoochorus seed dispersal by goats: recovery, germinability and emergence of five Mediterranean shrub species". Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 11 (2): 347–355. doi: 10.5424/sjar/2013112-3673 .
322. Stolter, Caroline; Joubert, Dave; Schwarz, Kathrin; Finckh, Manfred (14 April 2018). "Impact of bush encroachment management on plant response and animal distribution". Biodiversity & Ecology. 6: 219–225. doi:10.7809/b-e.00327. ISSN   1613-9801.
323. Adding 500 Goats to Our Ranch — Regenerating the Ranch Ep 5, 22 October 2022, retrieved 3 November 2022
324. Hester, Alison J.; Scogings, Peter F.; Trollope, Winston S. W. (1 April 2006). "Long-term impacts of goat browsing on bush-clump dynamics in a semi-arid subtropical savanna". Plant Ecology. 183 (2): 277–290. Bibcode:2006PlEco.183..277H. doi:10.1007/s11258-005-9039-6. ISSN   1573-5052. S2CID   34949701.
325. Elias, Daniel; Tischew, Sabine (16 October 2016). "Goat pasturing—A biological solution to counteract shrub encroachment on abandoned dry grasslands in Central Europe?". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Grazing in European open landscapes: how to reconcile sustainable land management and biodiversity conservation?. 234: 98–106. Bibcode:2016AgEE..234...98E. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2016.02.023. ISSN   0167-8809.
326. Jacobs, Alan H. (1980). Pastoral Maasai and tropical rural development. Agricultural development in Africa: issues of public policy. New York: Praeger. pp. 275–300. OCLC   772636262.
327. Aranda, Melina J.; Tognetti, Pedro M.; Mochi, Lucía S.; Mazía, Noemí (16 June 2023). "Intensive rotational grazing in pastures reduces the early establishment of an invasive tree species". Biological Invasions. 25 (10): 3137–3150. Bibcode:2023BiInv..25.3137A. doi:10.1007/s10530-023-03096-2. ISSN   1573-1464. S2CID   259498001.
328. Baggio, Rodrigo; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Durigan, Giselda; Pillar, Valério D. (June 2021). "To graze or not to graze: A core question for conservation and sustainable use of grassy ecosystems in Brazil". Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. 19 (3): 256–266. Bibcode:2021PEcoC..19..256B. doi:10.1016/j.pecon.2021.06.002. ISSN   2530-0644. S2CID   237350103.
329. Smit, G. Nico; Ritcher, C.G.F.; Aucamp, A. J. (1999). Bush encroachment: An approach to understanding and managing the problem. In Veld management in South Africa, ed. N.M. Tainton. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
330. Pratt, D. J. (1971). "Bush-Control Studies in the Drier Areas of Kenya. VI. Effects of Fenuron (3-Phenyl-1,1-Dimethylurea)". Journal of Applied Ecology. 8 (1): 239–245. Bibcode:1971JApEc...8..239P. doi:10.2307/2402141. JSTOR   2402141.
331. Reinhardt, Carl F.; Bezuidenhout, Hugo; Botha, Judith M. (18 March 2022). "Evidence that residues of tebuthiuron arboricide present in soil of Mokala National Park can be phytotoxic to woody and grass species". Koedoe. 64 (1). doi:10.4102/koedoe.v64i1.1658. S2CID   247612180.
332. Marquart, A; Slooten, E; Jordaan, Fp; Vermeulen, M; Kellner, K (19 September 2023). "The control of the encroaching shrub Seriphium plumosum ( L. ) Thunb. (Asteraceae) and the response of the grassy layer in a South African semi-arid rangeland". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 40 (3): 316–321. Bibcode:2023AJRFS..40..316M. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2086620. S2CID   251431666.
333. Taylor, Rebecca L.; Maxwell, Bruce D.; Boik, Robert J. (September 2006). "Indirect effects of herbicides on bird food resources and beneficial arthropods". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 116 (3–4): 157–164. Bibcode:2006AgEE..116..157T. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.01.012.
334. Hare, Malicha Loje; Xu, Xinwen; Wang, Yongdong; Gedda, Abule Ibro (December 2020). "The effects of bush control methods on encroaching woody plants in terms of die-off and survival in Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia". Pastoralism. 10 (1): 16. Bibcode:2020Pasto..10...16H. doi: 10.1186/s13570-020-00171-4 . ISSN   2041-7136. S2CID   220881346.
335. Alados, Concepción L.; Saiz, Hugo; Nuche, Paloma; Gartzia, Maite; Komac, B.; De Frutos, Ángel; Pueyo, Y. (4 September 2019). "Clearing vs. burning for restoring Pyrenean grasslands after shrub encroachment". Cuadernos de Investigación Geográfica. 45 (2): 441. doi:10.18172/cig.3589. ISSN   1697-9540. S2CID   69811475.
336. Albrecht, Matthew A.; Dell, Noah D.; Engelhardt, Megan J.; Reid, J. Leighton; Saxton, Michael L.; Trager, James C.; Waldman, Claire; Long, Quinn G. (3 September 2021). "Recovery of herb-layer vegetation and soil properties after pile burning in a Midwestern oak woodland". Restoration Ecology. 30 (4): e13547. doi:10.1111/rec.13547. ISSN   1061-2971. S2CID   239071453.
337. Mupangwa, Johnfisher; Lutaaya, Emmanuel; Shipandeni, Maria Ndakula Tautiko; Kahumba, Absalom; Charamba, Vonai; Shiningavamwe, Katrina Lugambo (2023), Fanadzo, Morris; Dunjana, Nothando; Mupambwa, Hupenyu Allan; Dube, Ernest (eds.), "Utilising Encroacher Bush in Animal Feeding", Towards Sustainable Food Production in Africa: Best Management Practices and Technologies, Sustainability Sciences in Asia and Africa, Singapore: Springer Nature, pp. 239–265, doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2427-1_14, ISBN   978-981-99-2427-1 , retrieved 13 July 2023
338. Shiningavamwe, Katrina Lugambo; Lutaaya, Emmanuel; Mupangwa, Johnfisher (14 May 2024), Feed intake, growth performance and carcass characteristics of Damara lambs fed bush-based rations from four encroacher bush species, doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4241387/v1 , retrieved 13 June 2024
339. Wedel, Emily R.; Nippert, Jesse B.; O'Connor, Rory C.; Nkuna, Peace; Swemmer, Anthony M. (3 May 2024). "Repeated clearing as a mechanism for savanna recovery following bush encroachment". Journal of Applied Ecology. 61 (7): 1520–1530. Bibcode:2024JApEc..61.1520W. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14666. ISSN   0021-8901.
340. Wedel, Emily; Nippert, Jesse B.; Swemmer, Anthony (October 2021). "Lowveld Savanna Bush Cutting Alters Tree-Grass Interactions". Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization.
341. Lerotholi, Nkuebe; Seleteng-Kose, Lerato; Odenya, William; Chatanga, Peter; Mapeshoane, Botle; Marake, Makoala V. (17 August 2023). "Impact of mechanical shrub removal on encroached mountain rangelands in Lesotho, southern Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 62 (1). doi:10.1111/aje.13203. ISSN   0141-6707. S2CID   261057553.
342. Kellner, Klaus; Mangani, Reletile T.; Sebitloane, Tshegofatso J. K.; Chirima, Johannes G.; Meyer, Nadine; Coetzee, Hendri C.; Malan, Pieter W.; Koch, Jaco (24 February 2021). "Restoration after bush control in selected rangeland areas of semi-arid savannas in South Africa". Bothalia - African Biodiversity & Conservation. 51 (1). doi:10.38201/btha.abc.v51.i1.7. ISSN   2311-9284. S2CID   232410555.
343. Castillo-Garcia, Miguel; Alados, Concepción L.; Ramos, Javier; Pueyo, Yolanda (1 January 2024). "Effectiveness of two mechanical shrub removal treatments for restoring sub-alpine grasslands colonized by re-sprouting woody vegetation". Journal of Environmental Management. 349: 119450. Bibcode:2024JEnvM.34919450C. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119450. ISSN   0301-4797. PMID   37897902. S2CID   264554762.
344. "From Bush to Charcoal: the Greenest Charcoal Comes from Namibia". fsc.org. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
345. Chingala, G.; Raffrenato, E.; Dzama, K.; Hoffman, L. C.; Mapiye, C. (2019). "Carcass and meat quality attributes of Malawi Zebu steers fed Vachellia polyacantha leaves or Adansonia digitata seed as alternative protein sources to Glycine max". South African Journal of Animal Science. 49 (2): 395–402. doi:10.4314/sajas.v49i2.18. ISSN   0375-1589. S2CID   181815372.
346. Brown, D; Ng'ambi, J.W.; Norris, D; Mbajiorgu, F.E. (9 December 2016). "Blood profiles of indigenous Pedi goats fed varying levels of Vachellia karroo leaf meal in Setaria verticillata hay-based diet". South African Journal of Animal Science. 46 (4): 432. doi:10.4314/sajas.v46i4.11. ISSN   2221-4062.
347. Khanyile, M.; Mapiye, C.; Thabethe, F.; Ncobela, C. N.; Chimonyo, M. (1 November 2020). "Growth performance, carcass characteristics and fatty acid composition of finishing pigs fed on graded levels of Vachellia tortilis leaf meal". Livestock Science. 241: 104259. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2020.104259. ISSN   1871-1413. S2CID   224888779.
348. Brown, D.; Ng'ambi, J. (2019). "Effects of dietary Vachelia Karroo leaf meal inclusion on meat quality and histological parameters in pedi bucks fed a Setaria Verticillata hay-based diet". Applied Ecology and Environmental Research. 17 (2): 2893–2909. doi:10.15666/AEER/1702_28932909. S2CID   146092219.
349. Idamokoro, E. Monday; Masika, Patrick J.; Muchenje, Voster (2016). "Vachellia karroo leaf meal: a promising non-conventional feed resource for improving goat production in low-input farming systems of Southern Africa". African Journal of Range and Forage Science. 33 (3): 141–153. Bibcode:2016AJRFS..33..141I. doi:10.2989/10220119.2016.1178172. ISSN   1727-9380. S2CID   88654358.
350. Shiimi, Dorthea K. (2020). A financial analysis of producing pellets from the encroacher bush Senegalia Mellifera as a potential livestock feed: A cost benefit analysis approach (Thesis thesis). University of Namibia.
351. "Fuel for the future". wwf.org.za. Retrieved 2 November 2022.
352. Tear, Timothy H.; Wolff, Nicholas H.; Lipsett-Moore, Geoffrey J.; Ritchie, Mark E.; Ribeiro, Natasha S.; Petracca, Lisanne S.; Lindsey, Peter A.; Hunter, Luke; Loveridge, Andrew J.; Steinbruch, Franziska (December 2021). "Savanna fire management can generate enough carbon revenue to help restore Africa's rangelands and fill protected area funding gaps". One Earth. 4 (12): 1776–1791. Bibcode:2021OEart...4.1776T. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.11.013. hdl:2263/88152. S2CID   245104726.
353. Silveira, Fernando A. O.; Arruda, André J.; Bond, William; Durigan, Giselda; Fidelis, Alessandra; Kirkman, Kevin; Oliveira, Rafael S.; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Sansevero, Jerônimo B. B; Siebert, Frances; Siebert, Stefan J.; Young, Truman P.; Buisson, Elise (September 2020). "Myth-busting tropical grassy biome restoration". Restoration Ecology. 28 (5): 1067–1073. Bibcode:2020ResEc..28.1067S. doi:10.1111/rec.13202. ISSN   1061-2971.
354. Archer, Steven R.; Predick, Katherina I. (2014). "An ecosystem services perspective on brush management: research priorities for competing land-use objectives". Journal of Ecology. 102 (6): 1394–1407. Bibcode:2014JEcol.102.1394A. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12314 .
355. Scholtz, Rheinhardt; Fuhlendorf, Samuel D.; Uden, Daniel R.; Allred, Brady W.; Jones, Matthew O.; Naugle, David E.; Twidwell, Dirac (July 2021). "Challenges of Brush Management Treatment Effectiveness in Southern Great Plains, United States". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 77: 57–65. Bibcode:2021REcoM..77...57S. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2021.03.007. S2CID   234820208.
356. Fogarty, Dillon T.; Roberts, Caleb P.; Uden, Daniel R.; Donovan, Victoria M.; Allen, Craig Reece; Naugle, David Edwin; Jones, Matthew O.; Allred, Brady W.; Twidwell, Dirac (2020). "Woody Plant Encroachment and the Sustainability of Priority Conservation Areas". Sustainability. 12 (20): 8321. Bibcode:2020Sust...12.8321F. doi: 10.3390/su12208321 .
357. Van Wilgen, Brian W.; Forsyth, Greg G.; Le Maitre, David C.; Wannenburgh, Andrew; Kotzé, Johann D. F.; Van den Berg, Elna; Henderson, Lesley (2012). "An assessment of the effectiveness of a large, national-scale invasive alien plant control strategy in South Africa". Biol. Conserv. 148 (1): 28–38. Bibcode:2012BCons.148...28V. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.12.035. hdl:10019.1/113015. S2CID   53664983.
358. Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David (January 2023). "The success of woody plant removal depends on encroachment stage and plant traits". Nature Plants. 9 (1): 58–67. Bibcode:2023NatPl...9...58D. doi:10.1038/s41477-022-01307-7. ISSN   2055-0278. PMID   36543937. S2CID   255039027.
359. Halpern, Charles B.; Antos, Joseph A. (2021). "Rates, patterns, and drivers of tree reinvasion 15 years after large-scale meadow-restoration treatments". Restoration Ecology. 29 (5): e13377. Bibcode:2021ResEc..2913377H. doi:10.1111/rec.13377. ISSN   1526-100X. S2CID   233367081.
360. Nghikembua, Matti T.; Marker, Laurie L.; Brewer, Bruce; Leinonen, Arvo; Mehtätalo, Lauri; Appiah, Mark; Pappinen, Ari (27 March 2021). "Restoration thinning reduces bush encroachment on freehold farmlands in north-central Namibia". Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research. 94 (4): cpab009. doi:10.1093/forestry/cpab009. ISSN   0015-752X.
361. McNew, Lance B.; Dahlgren, David K.; Beck, Jeffrey L., eds. (2023). Rangeland Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34037-6. ISBN   978-3-031-34036-9.^{[ page needed ]}
362. Twidwell, D; Fogarty, D; Weir, J. (2021). Reducing Woody Encroachment in Grasslands: A Guide for Understanding Risk and Vulnerability. Oklahoma State University.
363. Reed, Mark S.; Stringer, Lindsay C.; Dougill, Andrew J.; Perkins, Jeremy S.; Atlhopheng, Julius R.; Mulale, Kutlwano; Favretto, Nicola (March 2015). "Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems". Journal of Environmental Management. 151: 472–485. Bibcode:2015JEnvM.151..472R. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.11.010. PMID   25617787.
364. Jones, Scott; Fisher, Larry; Soto, José; Archer, Steven (2024). "Shrub encroachment and stakeholder perceptions of rangeland ecosystem services: balancing conservation and management?". Ecology and Society. 29 (3). doi:10.5751/ES-15113-290313. ISSN   1708-3087.
365. Ansley, R. James; Pinchak, William E. (October 2023). "Stability of C3 and C4 Grass Patches in Woody Encroached Rangeland after Fire and Simulated Grazing". Diversity. 15 (10): 1069. doi: 10.3390/d15101069 . ISSN   1424-2818.
366. Kayler, Zachary; Janowiak, Maria; Swanston, Christopher W. (2017). "The Global Carbon Cycle". Considering Forest and Grassland Carbon in Land Management. General Technical Report WTO-GTR-95. Vol. 95. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. pp. 3–9. doi:10.2737/WO-GTR-95.
367. Conant, Richard T. (2010). Challenges and opportunities for carbon sequestration in grassland systems : a technical report on grassland management and climate change mitigation. Integrated Crop Management. FAO. ISBN   978-92-5-106494-8. OCLC   890677450.
368. Pacala, Stephen W.; Hurtt, G. C.; Baker, David; Peylin, Philippe; Houghton, Richard A.; Birdsey, R. A.; Heath, Linda S.; Sundquist, E. T.; Stallard, R. F.; Ciais, Philippe; Moorcroft, Paul (22 June 2001). "Consistent Land- and Atmosphere-Based U.S. Carbon Sink Estimates". Science. 292 (5525): 2316–2320. Bibcode:2001Sci...292.2316P. doi:10.1126/science.1057320. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   11423659. S2CID   31060636.
369. Boutton, Thomas W.; Liao, J. D.; Filley, Timothy R.; Archer, Steven R. (26 October 2015), Lal, Rattan; Follett, Ronald F. (eds.), "Belowground Carbon Storage and Dynamics Accompanying Woody Plant Encroachment in a Subtropical Savanna", SSSA Special Publications, Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America, pp. 181–205, doi:10.2136/sssaspecpub57.2ed.c12, ISBN   978-0-89118-859-9 , retrieved 7 March 2021
370. Houghton, Richard A. (23 July 1999). "The U.S. Carbon Budget: Contributions from Land-Use Change". Science. 285 (5427): 574–578. doi:10.1126/science.285.5427.574. PMID   10417385.
371. Thijs, Ann (2014). Biotic and abiotic controls on carbon dynamics in a Central Texas encroaching savanna (Thesis).
372. Hurtt, George C.; Pacala, S. W.; Moorcroft, Paul R.; Caspersen, J.; Shevliakova, Elena; Houghton, Richard A.; Moore, Berrien (5 February 2002). "Projecting the future of the U.S. carbon sink". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (3): 1389–1394. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.1389H. doi: 10.1073/pnas.012249999 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   122200 . PMID   11830663.
373. Burrows, W. H.; Henry, B. K.; Back, P. V.; Hoffmann, M. B.; Tait, L. J.; Anderson, E. R.; Menke, Norbert; Danaher, T.; Carter, John O.; McKeon, G. M. (1 August 2002). "Growth and carbon stock change in eucalypt woodlands in northeast Australia: ecological and greenhouse sink implications: Growth and Carbon Stock Change in Eucalypt Woodlands". Global Change Biology. 8 (8): 769–784. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2002.00515.x. S2CID   86267916.
374. Kelley, D I; Harrison, S P (1 October 2014). "Enhanced Australian carbon sink despite increased wildfire during the 21st century". Environmental Research Letters. 9 (10): 104015. Bibcode:2014ERL.....9j4015K. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/104015. ISSN   1748-9326. S2CID   55134760.
375. Eldridge, David J.; Sala, Osvaldo (24 November 2023). "Australia's carbon plan disregards evidence". Science. 382 (6673): 894. Bibcode:2023Sci...382..894E. doi:10.1126/science.adm7310. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   37995227. S2CID   265381125.
376. Thompson, M. (2018). "South African National Land-Cover 2018 Report & Accuracy Assessment". Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries South Africa. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
377. Coetsee, Corli; Gray, Emma F.; Wakeling, Julia; Wigley, Benjamin J.; Bond, William J. (5 December 2012). "Low gains in ecosystem carbon with woody plant encroachment in a South African savanna". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 29 (1): 49–60. doi:10.1017/s0266467412000697. ISSN   0266-4674. S2CID   85575373.
378. Jackson, Robert B.; Banner, Jay L.; Jobbágy, Esteban G.; Pockman, William T.; Wall, Diana H. (2002). "Ecosystem carbon loss with woody plant invasion of grasslands". Nature. 418 (6898): 623–626. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..623J. doi:10.1038/nature00910. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   12167857. S2CID   14566976.
379. Pellegrini, Adam F. A.; Socolar, Jacob B.; Elsen, Paul R.; Giam, Xingli (2016). "Trade-offs between savanna woody plant diversity and carbon storage in the Brazilian Cerrado". Global Change Biology. 22 (10): 3373–3382. Bibcode:2016GCBio..22.3373P. doi:10.1111/gcb.13259. PMID   26919289. S2CID   205143287.
380. Shin, Yunne-Jai; Midgley, Guy F.; Archer, Emma R. M.; Arneth, Almut; Barnes, David K. A.; Chan, Lena; Hashimoto, Shizuka; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove; Insarov, Gregory; Leadley, Paul; Levin, Lisa A. (May 2022). "Actions to halt biodiversity loss generally benefit the climate". Global Change Biology. 28 (9): 2846–2874. Bibcode:2022GCBio..28.2846S. doi:10.1111/gcb.16109. ISSN   1354-1013. PMC   9303674 . PMID   35098619. S2CID   246429735.
381. Pellegrini, Adam F. A.; Reich, Peter B.; Hobbie, Sarah E.; Coetsee, Corli; Wigley, Benjamin; February, Edmund; Georgiou, Katerina; Terrer, Cesar; Brookshire, E. N. J.; Ahlström, Anders; Nieradzik, Lars; Sitch, Stephen; Melton, Joe R.; Forrest, Matthew; Li, Fang (October 2023). "Soil carbon storage capacity of drylands under altered fire regimes". Nature Climate Change. 13 (10): 1089–1094. Bibcode:2023NatCC..13.1089P. doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01800-7. ISSN   1758-6798. S2CID   263625526.
382. Greenfield, Patrick (3 October 2023). "Tree-planting schemes threaten tropical biodiversity, ecologists say". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 15 October 2023.
383. Aguirre-Gutiérrez, Jesús; Stevens, Nicola; Berenguer, Erika (October 2023). "Valuing the functionality of tropical ecosystems beyond carbon". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 38 (12): 1109–1111. Bibcode:2023TEcoE..38.1109A. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2023.08.012. ISSN   0169-5347. PMID   37798181. S2CID   263633184.
384. Nuñez, Martin A.; Davis, Kimberley T.; Dimarco, Romina D.; Peltzer, Duane A.; Paritsis, Juan; Maxwell, Bruce D.; Pauchard, Aníbal (3 May 2021). "Should tree invasions be used in treeless ecosystems to mitigate climate change?". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 19 (6): 334–341. Bibcode:2021FrEE...19..334N. doi:10.1002/fee.2346. ISSN   1540-9295. S2CID   235564362.
385. "When it comes to carbon capture, tree invasions can do more harm than good". Mongabay Environmental News. 21 June 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
386. Welz, Adam (June 2013). "The Surprising Role of CO2 in Changes on the African Savanna". Yale E360. Retrieved 30 September 2021.
387. Mirzabaev, A., L.C. Stringer, T.A. Benjaminsen, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, M. Jafari, N. Stevens, C.M. Tirado, and S. Zakieldeen, 2022: Cross-Chapter Paper 3: Deserts, Semiarid Areas and Desertification. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2195–2231, doi : 10.1017/9781009325844.020
388. Parr, Catherine L.; te Beest, Mariska; Stevens, Nicola (16 February 2024). "Conflation of reforestation with restoration is widespread". Science. 383 (6684): 698–701. Bibcode:2024Sci...383..698P. doi:10.1126/science.adj0899. hdl:1874/438437. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   38359128. S2CID   267682492.
389. Parr, Catherine L.; Lehmann, Caroline; Bond, William John; Hoffmann, William Arthur; Andersen, Alan N. (2014). "Tropical grassy biomes: misunderstood, neglected, and under threat". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 29 (4): 205–213. Bibcode:2014TEcoE..29..205P. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2014.02.004. PMID   24629721. S2CID   24535948.
390. Kumar, Dushyant; Pfeiffer, Mirjam; Gaillard, Camille; Langan, Liam; Martens, Carola; Scheiter, Simon (2020). "Misinterpretation of Asian savannas as degraded forest can mislead management and conservation policy under climate change". Biological Conservation. 241: 108–293. Bibcode:2020BCons.24108293K. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108293. S2CID   212851776.
391. Gillson, Lindsey; Hoffman, M. Timm; Gell, Peter A.; Ekblom, Anneli; Bond, William J. (December 2023). "Trees, carbon, and the psychology of landscapes". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 39 (4): 359–367. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2023.11.008. PMID   38129213. S2CID   266467077.
392. Veldman, Joseph W.; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Negreiros, Daniel; Mahy, Gregory; Le Stradic, Soizig; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Durigan, Giselda; Buisson, Elise; Putz, Francis E.; Bond, William J. (1 October 2015). "Where Tree Planting and Forest Expansion are Bad for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services". BioScience. 65 (10): 1011–1018. doi:10.1093/biosci/biv118. ISSN   1525-3244.
393. Turpie, Jane; Botha, Pieter; Coldrey, Kevin; Forsythe, Katherine; Knowles, Tony; Letley, Gwyneth; Allen, Jessica; De Wet, Ruan (2019). "Towards a Policy on Indigenous Bush Encroachment in South Africa" (PDF). Department of Environmental Affairs. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.

Sources

• UNCCD – 'Silent demise’ of vast rangelands threatens climate, food, wellbeing of billions (2024)
• IPCC – Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (2022)
• IPCC – Cross-Chapter Paper 3: Deserts, Semiarid Areas and Desertification. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (2022)
• IPCC Special Report – Climate Change and Land – Climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems (2019)
• Archer, Steven R.; Andersen, Erik M.; Predick, Katharine I.; Schwinning, Susanne; Steidl, Robert J.; Woods, Steven R. (2017). "Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences". Rangeland Systems. Springer Series on Environmental Management. pp. 25–84. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2. ISBN   978-3-319-46707-8.
• Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David J. (7 December 2023). "Ecosystem service trade-offs resulting from woody plant removal vary with biome, encroachment stage and removal method". Journal of Applied Ecology. 61 (2): 236–248. Bibcode:2024JApEc..61..236D. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14551.
• Hamilton, Wayne T.; McGinty, Allan; Ueckert, Darrell N.; Hanselka, C. Wayne; Lee, Michelle R. (2004). Brush Management: Past, Present, Future. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN   978-1-58544-357-4. OCLC   605342910.
• Twidwell, Dirac; Fogarty, Dillon T. (2021). A guide to reducing risk and vulnerability to woody encroachment in rangelands (PDF). University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
• Stanton, Richard A.; Boone, Wesley W.; Soto-Shoender, Jose; Fletcher, Robert J.; Blaum, Niels; McCleery, Robert A. (March 2018). "Shrub encroachment and vertebrate diversity: A global meta-analysis". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 27 (3): 368–379. Bibcode:2018GloEB..27..368S. doi:10.1111/geb.12675.
• McNew, Lance B.; Dahlgren, David K.; Beck, Jeffrey L., eds. (2023). Rangeland Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34037-6. ISBN   978-3-031-34036-9.
• De Klerk, J. N. (2004) Bush Encroachment in Namibia
• Department of Environmental Affairs (2019) Towards a Policy on Indigenous Bush Encroachment in South Africa Archived 24 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Brush management as a rangeland conservation strategy: A critical evaluation, U.S. Department of Agriculture (2011)
• Eldridge, David J.; Bowker, Matthew A.; Maestre, Fernando T.; Roger, Erin; Reynolds, James F.; Whitford, Walter G. (July 2011). "Impacts of shrub encroachment on ecosystem structure and functioning: towards a global synthesis: Synthesizing shrub encroachment effects". Ecology Letters. 14 (7): 709–722. Bibcode:2011EcolL..14..709E. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01630.x. PMC   3563963 . PMID   21592276.
• Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David (21 December 2022). "The success of woody plant removal depends on encroachment stage and plant traits". Nature Plants. 9 (1): 58–67. Bibcode:2023NatPl...9...58D. doi:10.1038/s41477-022-01307-7. PMID   36543937.
• Ding, Jingyi; Eldridge, David J. (February 2024). "Ecosystem service trade-offs resulting from woody plant removal vary with biome, encroachment stage and removal method". Journal of Applied Ecology. 61 (2): 236–248. Bibcode:2024JApEc..61..236D. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14551.

External links

Websites

• Stockholm Resilience Centre – Regime Shifts DataBase: Bush Encroachment
• Panorama.Solutions – Rangeland Restoration through Bush Control
• The Rangelands Partnership – Global Rangelands Portal
• Wrangle – World Rangeland Learning Experience

Articles

• Rural 21 Magazine – Namibia's bush business
• Daily Maverick: Biological vandalism— the world's wild savannas may be doomed, but few pay attention
• Daily Maverick: Fierce fires can help save the veld from bush encroachment and extinction, says top UCT ecologist