Breast cancer classification

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Breast cancer classification divides breast cancer into categories according to different schemes criteria and serving a different purpose. The major categories are the histopathological type, the grade of the tumor, the stage of the tumor, and the expression of proteins and genes. As knowledge of cancer cell biology develops these classifications are updated.

Contents

The purpose of classification is to select the best treatment. The effectiveness of a specific treatment is demonstrated for a specific breast cancer (usually by randomized, controlled trials). That treatment may not be effective in a different breast cancer. Some breast cancers are aggressive and life-threatening, and must be treated with aggressive treatments that have major adverse effects. Other breast cancers are less aggressive and can be treated with less aggressive treatments, such as lumpectomy.

Treatment algorithms rely on breast cancer classification to define specific subgroups that are each treated according to the best evidence available. Classification aspects must be carefully tested and validated, such that confounding effects are minimized, making them either true prognostic factors, which estimate disease outcomes such as disease-free or overall survival in the absence of therapy, or true predictive factors, which estimate the likelihood of response or lack of response to a specific treatment. [1]

Classification of breast cancer is usually, but not always, primarily based on the histological appearance of tissue in the tumor. A variant from this approach, defined on the basis of physical exam findings, is that inflammatory breast cancer (IBC), a form of ductal carcinoma or malignant cancer in the ducts, is distinguished from other carcinomas by the inflamed appearance of the affected breast, which correlates with increased cancer aggressivity. [2]

Schemes or aspects

Overview

Breast cancers can be classified by different schemata. Each of these aspects influences treatment response and prognosis. Description of a breast cancer would optimally include all of these classification aspects, as well as other findings, such as signs found on physical exam. A full classification includes histopathological type, grade, stage (TNM), receptor status, and the presence or absence of genes as determined by DNA testing:

Histopathology

Histopathologic types of breast cancer, with relative incidences and prognoses. Pie chart of incidence and prognosis of histopathologic breast cancer types.png
Histopathologic types of breast cancer, with relative incidences and prognoses.
Ducts and lobules, the locations of ductal and lobular carcinoma, respectively. Lobules and ducts of the breast.jpg
Ducts and lobules, the locations of ductal and lobular carcinoma, respectively.

Histopathologic classification is based upon characteristics seen upon light microscopy of biopsy specimens. They can broadly be classified into:

WHO classification

The 2012 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of tumors of the breast [11] which includes benign (generally harmless) tumors and malignant (cancerous) tumors, recommends the following pathological types:

Grade

The grading of a cancer in the breast depends on the microscopic similarity of breast cancer cells to normal breast tissue, and classifies the cancer as well differentiated (low-grade), moderately differentiated (intermediate-grade), and poorly differentiated (high-grade), reflecting progressively less normal appearing cells that have a worsening prognosis. Although grading is fundamentally based on how biopsied, cultured cells behave, in practice the grading of a given cancer is derived by assessing the cellular appearance of the tumor. The closer the appearance of the cancer cells to normal cells, the slower their growth and the better the prognosis. If cells are not well differentiated, they will appear immature, will divide more rapidly, and will tend to spread. Well differentiated is given a grade of 1, moderate is grade 2, while poor or undifferentiated is given a higher grade of 3 or 4 (depending upon the scale used).

The Nottingham system [12] is recommended for breast cancer grading. [13] The Nottingham system is also called the Bloom–Richardson–Elston system (BRE), [14] or the Elston-Ellis modification [15] of the Scarff-Bloom-Richardson grading system. [16] [17] It grades breast carcinomas by adding up scores for tubule formation, nuclear pleomorphism, and mitotic count, each of which is given 1 to 3 points. The scores for each of these three criteria are then added together to give an overall final score and corresponding grade. It is not applicable to medullary carcinomas which are histologically high-grade by definition, while being clinically low-grade if lymph nodes are negative. [18] It is also not applicable to metaplastic carcinomas. [19]

The grading criteria are as follows:

Tubule formation

Tubule formation score in the Nottingham system Tubule formation score in the Nottingham system.jpg
Tubule formation score in the Nottingham system

This parameter assesses what percent of the tumor forms normal duct structures. In cancer, there is a breakdown of the mechanisms that cells use to attach to each other and communicate with each other, to form tissues such as ducts, so the tissue structures become less orderly.

Note: The overall appearance of the tumor has to be considered. [20]

Nuclear pleomorphism

This parameter assesses whether the cell nuclei are uniform like those in normal breast duct epithelial cells, or whether they are larger, darker, or irregular (pleomorphic). In cancer, the mechanisms that control genes and chromosomes in the nucleus break down, and irregular nuclei and pleomorphic changes are signs of abnormal cell reproduction.

Note: The cancer areas having cells with the greatest cellular abnormalities should be evaluated.

Mitotic count

Mitosis appearances in breast cancer Mitosis appearances in breast cancer.jpg
Mitosis appearances in breast cancer

This parameter assesses how many mitotic figures (dividing cells) the pathologist sees in 10x high power microscope field. One of the hallmarks of cancer is that cells divide uncontrollably. The more cells that are dividing, the worse the cancer.

Note: Mitotic figures are counted only at the periphery of the tumor, and counting should begin in the most mitotically active areas.

Mitotic count per 10 high-power fields (HPFs) [21]
Area per HPFScore
0.096 mm2 [notes 1] 0.12 mm2 [notes 1] 0.16 mm2 [notes 1] 0.27 mm2 [notes 1] 0.31 mm2 [notes 1]
0-30-40-50-90-111
4-75-86-1010-1912-222
>7>8>10>19>223

Overall grade

The scores for each of these three criteria are added together to give a final overall score and a corresponding grade as follows:

Lower-grade tumors, with a more favorable prognosis, can be treated less aggressively, and have a better survival rate. Higher-grade tumors are treated more aggressively, and their intrinsically worse survival rate may warrant the adverse effects of more aggressive medications.

Stage

Staging [22] is the process of determining how much cancer there is in the body and where it is located. The underlying purpose of staging is to describe the extent or severity of an individual's cancer, and to bring together cancers that have similar prognosis and treatment. [22] Staging of breast cancer is one aspect of breast cancer classification that assists in making appropriate treatment choices, when considered along with other classification aspects such as estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor levels in the cancer tissue, the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2/neu) status, menopausal status, and the person's general health. [23]

Staging information that is obtained prior to surgery, for example by mammography, x-rays and CT scans, is called clinical staging and staging by surgery is known as pathological staging.

Pathologic staging is more accurate than clinical staging, but clinical staging is the first and sometimes the only staging type. For example, if clinical staging reveals stage IV disease, extensive surgery may not be helpful, and (appropriately) incomplete pathological staging information will be obtained.

The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) recommend TNM staging, which is a two step procedure. Their TNM system, which they now develop jointly, first classifies cancer by several factors, T for tumor, N for nodes, M for metastasis, and then groups these TNM factors into overall stages.

Primary Tumor (T)

Tumor – The tumor values (TX, T0, Tis, T1, T2, T3 or T4) depend on the cancer at the primary site of origin in the breast, as follows: [24]

  • T1a: 0.1 to 0.5 cm
  • T1b: 0.5 to 1.0 cm
  • T1c: 1.0 to 2.0 cm
  • T4a: Chest wall involvement
  • T4b: Skin involvement
  • T4c: Both 4a and 4b
  • T4d: Inflammatory breast cancer, a clinical circumstance where typical skin changes involve at least a third of the breast.

Regional Lymph Nodes (N)

Lymph Node – The lymph node values (NX, N0, N1, N2 or N3) depend on the number, size and location of breast cancer cell deposits in various regional lymph nodes, such as the armpit (axillary lymph nodes), the collar area (supraclavicular lymph nodes), and inside the chest (internal mammary lymph nodes.) [25] [26] The armpit is designated as having three levels: level I is the low axilla, and is below or outside the lower edge of the pectoralis minor muscle; level II is the mid-axilla which is defined by the borders of the pectoralis minor muscle; and level III, or high (apical) axilla which is above the pectoralis minor muscle. Each stage is as follows: [24]

  • N0(i+) : Isolated Tumor Cell clusters (ITC), which are small clusters of cells not greater than 0.2 mm, or single tumor cells, or a cluster of fewer than 200 cells in a single histologic cross-section, whether detected by routine histology or immunohistochemistry. [27]
  • N0(mol-): regional lymph nodes have no metastases histologically, but have positive molecular findings (RT-PCR). [27]
  • N1mi: Micrometastasis, that is, lymph node clusters at least 2 mm or 200 cells, but less than 2.0 mm. [27] At least one carcinoma focus over 2.0 mm is called "Lymph node metastasis". If one node qualifies as metastasis, all other nodes even with smaller foci are counted as metastases as well.
  • N3a – Ipsilateral infraclavicular nodes
  • N3b – Ipsilateral internal mammary nodes
  • N3c – Ipsilateral supraclavicular nodes

Distant Metastases (M)

Overall stage

A combination of T, N and M, as follows: [24]

Breast cancer prognosis by stage [28]
Stage5-year
survival
Stage 0100%
Stage I100%
Stage II90%
Stage III70%
Stage IV30%

Staging and prognosis

The impact of different stages on outcome can be appreciated in the following table, taken from patient data in the 2013-2015 period, and using the AJCC 8th edition for staging. [28] It does not show the influence of important additional factors such as estrogen receptor (ER) or HER2/neu receptor status, and does not reflect the impact of newer treatments.

Previous editions

Although TNM classification is an internationally agreed system, it has gradually evolved through its different editions; the dates of publication and of adoption for use of AJCC editions is summarized in the table in this article; past editions are available from AJCC for web download. [29]

Several factors are important when reviewing reports for individual breast cancers or when reading the medical literature, and applying staging data.

AJCC editionpublished [29] went into effect [29] Breast cancer
link(s) and page numbers
in the original
720092010AJCC [30] or NCI [23]
620022003AJCC; [31] original pages 223-240
519971998AJCC; [32] original pages 171-180
419921993AJCC; [33] original pages 149-154
319881989AJCC; [34] original pages 145-150
219831984AJCC; [35] original pages 127-134
119771978AJCC; [36] original pages 101-108

It is crucial to be aware that the TNM system criteria have varied over time, sometimes fairly substantially, according to the different editions that AJCC and UICC have released. [29] Readers are assisted by the provision in the table of direct links to the breast cancer chapters of these various editions.

As a result, a given stage may have quite a different prognosis depending on which staging edition is used, independent of any changes in diagnostic methods or treatments, an effect that can contribute to "stage migration". [37] For example, differences in the 1998 and 2003 categories resulted in many cancers being assigned differently, with apparent improvement in survival rates. [38]

As a practical matter, reports often use the staging edition that was in place when the study began, rather than the date of acceptance or publication. However, it is worth checking whether the author updated the staging system during the study, or modified the usual classification rules for specific use in the investigation.

A different effect on staging arises from evolving technologies that are used to assign patients to particular categories, such that increasingly sensitive methods tend to cause individual cancers to be reassigned to higher stages, making it improper to compare that cancer's prognosis to the historical expectations for that stage.

Finally, of course, a further important consideration is the effect of improving treatments over time as well.

Previous editions featured three metastatic values (MX, M0 and M1) which referred respectively to absence of adequate information, the confirmed absence, or the presence of breast cancer cells in locations other than the breast and regional lymph nodes, such as to bone, brain, lung.

AJCC has provided web accessible poster versions of the current versions of these copyrighted TNM descriptors and groups, [30] and readers should refer to that up to date, accurate information [30] or to the National Cancer Institute (NCI) [23] or National Comprehensive Cancer Network [39] sites which reprints these with AJCC permission.

For accurate, complete, current details refer to the accessible copyrighted documentation from AJCC, [30] or to the authorized documentation from NCI [23] or NCCN; [39] for past editions refer to AJCC. [29]

Receptor status

The receptor status of breast cancers has traditionally been identified by immunohistochemistry (IHC), which stains the cells based on the presence of estrogen receptors (ER), progesterone receptors (PR) and HER2. This remains the most common method of testing for receptor status, but DNA multi-gene expression profiles can categorize breast cancers into molecular subtypes that generally correspond to IHC receptor status; one commercial source is the BluePrint test, as discussed in the following section.

Receptor status is a critical assessment for all breast cancers as it determines the suitability of using targeted treatments such as tamoxifen and or trastuzumab. These treatments are now some of the most effective adjuvant treatments of breast cancer. Estrogen receptor positive (ER+) cancer cells depend on estrogen for their growth, so they can be treated with drugs to reduce either the effect of estrogen (e.g. tamoxifen) or the actual level of estrogen (e.g. aromatase inhibitors), and generally have a better prognosis. Generally, prior to modern treatments, HER+ had a worse prognosis, [40] however HER2+ cancer cells respond to drugs such as the monoclonal antibody, trastuzumab, (in combination with conventional chemotherapy) and this has improved the prognosis significantly. [41] Conversely, triple negative cancer (i.e. no positive receptors), lacking targeted treatments, now has a comparatively poor prognosis. [42] [43]

Androgen receptor is expressed in 80-90% of ER+ breast cancers and 40% of "triple negative" breast cancers. Activation of androgen receptors appears to suppress breast cancer growth in ER+ cancer while in ER- breast it appears to act as growth promoter. Efforts are underway to utilize this as prognostic marker and treatment. [44] [45]

Molecular subtype

Receptor status was traditionally considered by reviewing each individual receptor (ER, PR, her2) in turn, but newer approaches look at these together, along with the tumor grade, to categorize breast cancer into several conceptual molecular classes [46] that have different prognoses [39] and may have different responses to specific therapies. [47] DNA microarrays have assisted this approach, as discussed in the following section. Proposed molecular subtypes include:

Comparison of molecular subtypes of breast cancer. [52]
Luminal ALuminal BERBB2/HER2-amplifiedBasal-like
Overall gene expressionHigh expression of:
  • Luminal epithelial genes
  • ER-related genes
Compared to Luminal A, higher expression of:
  • Proliferation-related genes
  • HER2-related genes

Lower expression of:

  • Luminal epithelial genes
  • ER-related genes
  • High expression of HER2-related genes
  • Low expression of ER-related genes
High expression of:
  • Basal epithelial-related genes
  • proliferation-related genes

Low expression of:

  • HER2-related genes
  • ER-related genes
Light microscopy types
  • Tubular carcinoma
  • Low grade invasive ductal carcinoma
  • Classic invasive lobular carcinoma
  • Invasive ductal carcinoma
  • Micropapillary carcinoma
  • Pleomorphic invasive lobular carcinoma
  • High grade invasive ductal carcinoma
  • Pleomorphic invasive lobular carcinoma
  • High grade invasive ductal carcinoma
  • Metaplastic carcinoma
  • Medullary carcinoma
  • Adenoid cyctic carcinoma
Immunohistochemistry
  • Estrogen receptor positive
  • Progesterone receptor positive in at least 20% of cases
  • HER2 negative
  • Low Ki-67
  • Estrogen receptor positive
  • Progesterone receptor positive in less than 20% of cases
  • HER2 positive or high Ki-67
  • HER2 positive
  • Estrogen and progesterone receptor negative
  • HER2, estrogen and progesterone receptor negative
Gene mutations
  • PI3KCA
  • MAPK3K1
  • GATA3
  • CCDN1 amplification

Similar to luminal A but:

  • TP53 inactivation
  • Rb inactivation
  • Myc-related transcription
  • FOXM1-related transcription
  • TP53
  • RB1 loss
  • BRCA1 loss
  • MYC amplification
  • PI3K/AKT pathway oversignaling

DNA classification

Traditional DNA classification

Traditional DNA classification was based on the general observation that cells that are dividing more quickly have a worse prognosis, and relied on either the presence of protein Ki67 or the percentage of cancer cell DNA in S phase. These methods, and scoring systems that used DNA ploidy, are used much less often now, as their predictive and prognostic power was less substantial than other classification schemes such as the TNM stage. In contrast, modern DNA analyses are increasingly relevant in defining underlying cancer biology and in helping choose treatments. [53] [54] [55] [56]

HER2/neu

HER2/neu status can be analyzed by fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH) assays. [39] Some commentators prefer this approach, claiming a higher correlation than receptor immunohistochemistry with response to trastuzumab, a targeted therapy, but guidelines permit either testing method. [39]

DNA microarrays

Background

Molecular classification of breast cancer from mRNA expression profiles Bc-classification.png
Molecular classification of breast cancer from mRNA expression profiles

DNA microarrays have compared normal cells to breast cancer cells and found differences in the expression of hundreds of genes. Although the significance of many of those genetic differences is unknown, independent analyses by different research groups has found that certain groups of genes have a tendency to co-express. These co-expressing clusters have included hormone receptor-related genes, HER2-related genes, a group of basal-like genes, and proliferation genes. As might therefore be anticipated, there is considerable similarity between the receptor and microarray classifications, but assignment of individual tumors is by no means identical. By way of illustration, some analyses have suggested that approximately 75% of receptor classified triple-negative breast cancers (TNBC) basal-like tumors have the expected DNA expression profile, and a similar 75% of tumors with a typical basal-like DNA expression profile are receptor TNBC as well. To say this in a different way to emphasize things, this means that 25% of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) basal-like tumors as defined by one or other classification are excluded from the alternative classification's results. Which classification scheme (receptor IHC or DNA expression profile) more reliably assorts particular cancers to effective therapies is under investigation.

Several commercially marketed DNA microarray tests analyze clusters of genes and may help decide which possible treatment is most effective for a particular cancer. [57] The use of these assays in breast cancers is supported by Level II evidence or Level III evidence. No tests have been verified by Level I evidence, which is rigorously defined as being derived from a prospective, randomized controlled trial where patients who used the test had a better outcome than those who did not. Acquiring extensive Level I evidence would be clinically and ethically challenging. However, several validation approaches [58] [59] are being actively pursued.

Numerous genetic profiles have been developed. [60] [61] The most heavily marketed are:

These multigene assays, some partially and some completely commercialized, have been scientifically reviewed to compare them with other standard breast cancer classification methods such as grade and receptor status. [49] [61] Although these gene-expression profiles look at different individual genes, they seem to classify a given tumor into similar risk groups and thus provide concordant predictions of outcome. [39] [62]

Although there is considerable evidence that these tests can refine the treatment decisions in a meaningful proportion of breast cancers [60] [61] they are fairly expensive; proposed selection criteria for which particular tumors may benefit by being interrogated by these assays [39] remain controversial, particularly with lymph node positive cancers. [39] One review characterized these genetic tests collectively as adding "modest prognostic information for patients with HER2-positive and triple-negative tumors, but when measures of clinical risk are equivocal (e.g., intermediate expression of ER and intermediate histologic grade), these assays could guide clinical decisions". [40]

Oncotype DX

Oncotype DX assesses 16 cancer-related genes and 5 normal comparator reference genes, and is therefore sometimes known as the 21-gene assay. It was designed for use in estrogen receptor (ER) positive tumors. The test is run on formalin fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. Oncotype results are reported as a Recurrence Score (RS), where a higher RS is associated with a worse prognosis, referring to the likelihood of recurrence without treatment. In addition to that prognostic role, a higher RS is also associated with a higher probability of response to chemotherapy, which is termed a positive predictive factor.

These results suggest that not only does Oncotype stratify estrogen-receptor positive breast cancer into different prognostic groups, but also suggest that cancers that have a particularly favorable Oncotype DX microarray result tend to derive minimal benefit from adjuvant chemotherapy and so it may be appropriate to choose to avoid side effects from that additional treatment. As an additional example, a neoadjuvant clinical treatment program that included initial chemotherapy followed by surgery and subsequent additional chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and hormonal therapy found a strong correlation of the Oncotype classification with the likelihood of a complete response (CR) to the presurgical chemotherapy. [67]

Since high risk features may already be evident in many high risk cancers, for example hormone-receptor negativity or HER-2 positive disease, the Oncotype test may especially improve the risk assessment that is derived from routine clinical variables in intermediate risk disease. [68] Results from both the US [69] and internationally [70] suggest that Oncotype may assist in treatment decisions. [71]

Oncotype DX has been endorsed by the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) [60] [63] and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). [39] The NCCN Panel considers the 21-gene assay as an option when evaluating certain tumors [39] to assist in estimating likelihood of recurrence and benefit from chemotherapy, emphasizing that the recurrence score should be used along with other breast cancer classification elements when stratifying risk. [39] Oncotype fulfilled all California Technology Assessment Forum (CTAF) criteria in October 2006. [72] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not mandate approval of this class of tests if they are performed at a single, company-operated laboratory [73] Genomic Health, which developed Oncotype DX, offers the test under these so-called home brew rules and, accordingly, to that extent the Oncotype DX assay is not specifically FDA approved. [73]

MammaPrint and BluePrint

The MammaPrint gene pattern is a commercial-stage 70-gene panel marketed by Agendia, [74] that was developed in patients under age 55 years who had lymph node negative breast cancers (N0). [72] The commercial test is marketed for use in breast cancer irrespective of estrogen receptor (ER) status. [72] The test is run on formalin fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. MammaPrint traditionally used rapidly frozen tissue [39] but a room temperature, molecular fixative is available for use within 60 minutes of obtaining fresh tissue samples. [75]

A summary of clinical trials using MammaPrint is included in the MammaPrint main article. The available evidence for Mammaprint was reviewed by California Technology Assessment Forum (CTAF) in June 2010; the written report indicated that MammaPrint had not yet fulfilled all CTAF criteria. [72] MammaPrint has 5 FDA clearances and is the only FDA cleared microarray assay available. To be eligible for the MammaPrint gene expression profile, a breast cancer should have the following characteristics: stage 1 or 2, tumor size less than 5.0 cm, estrogen receptor positive (ER+) or estrogen receptor negative (ER-). In the US, the tumor should also be lymph node negative (N0), but internationally the test may be performed if the lymph node status is negative or positive with up to 3 nodes. [76]

One method of assessing the molecular subtype of a breast cancer is by BluePrint, [77] a commercial-stage 80-gene panel marketed by Agendia, either as a standalone test, or combined with the MammaPrint gene profile.

Other DNA assays and choice of treatment

The choice of established chemotherapy medications, if chemotherapy is needed, may also be affected by DNA assays that predict relative resistance or sensitivity. Topoisomerase II (TOP2A) expression predicts whether doxorubicin is relatively useful. [78] [79] Expression of genes that regulate tubulin may help predict the activity of taxanes.

Various molecular pathway targets and DNA results are being incorporated in the design of clinical trials of new medicines. [80] Specific genes such as p53, NME1, BRCA and PIK3CA/Akt may be associated with responsiveness of the cancer cells to innovative research pharmaceuticals. BRCA1 and BRCA2 polymorphic variants can increase the risk of breast cancer, and these cancers tend to express a pr ofile of genes, such as p53, in a pattern that has been called "BRCA-ness." Cancers arising from BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations, as well as other cancers that share a similar "BRCA-ness" profile, including some basal-like receptor triple negative breast cancers, may respond to treatment with PARP inhibitors [81] such as olaparib. Combining these newer medicines with older agents such as 6-Thioguanine (6TG) may overcome the resistance that can arise in BRCA cancers to PARP inhibitors or platinum-based chemotherapy. [82] mTOR inhibitors such as everolimus may show more effect in PIK3CA/Akt e9 mutants than in e20 mutants or wild types. [83]

DNA methylation patterns can epigenetically affect gene expression in breast cancer and may contribute to some of the observed differences between genetic subtypes. [84]

Tumors overexpressing the Wnt signaling pathway co-receptor low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) may represent a distinct subtype of breast cancer and a potential treatment target. [85]

Numerous clinical investigations looked at whether testing for variant genotype polymorphic alleles of several genes could predict whether or not to prescribe tamoxifen; this was based on possible differences in the rate of conversion of tamoxifen to the active metabolite, endoxifen. Although some studies had suggested a potential advantage from CYP2D6 testing, data from two large clinical trials found no benefit. [86] [87] Testing for the CYP2C19*2 polymorphism gave counterintuitive results. [88] The medical utility of potential biomarkers of tamoxifen responsiveness such as HOXB13, [89] PAX2, [90] and estrogen receptor (ER) alpha and beta isoforms interaction with SRC3 [91] [92] have all yet[ when? ] to be fully defined.

Other classification approaches

Computer models

Computer models consider several traditional factors concurrently to derive individual survival predictions and calculations of potential treatment benefits. The validated algorithms can present visually appealing graphics that assist in treatment decisions. In addition, other classifications of breast cancers do exist and no uniform system has been consistently adopted worldwide.

Adjuvant! is based on US cohorts [93] and presents colored bar charts that display information that may assist in decisions regarding systemic adjuvant therapies. Successful validation was seen with Canadian [94] and Dutch [95] cohorts. Adjuvant! seemed less applicable to a British cohort [96] and accordingly PREDICT is being developed in the United Kingdom. [97]

Other immunohistochemical tests

Among the immunohistochemical tests that may further stratify prognosis, BCL2 has shown promise in preliminary studies. [98]

Van Nuys prognostic index

The USC/Van Nuys prognostic index (VNPI) classifies ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) into dissimilar risk categories that may be treated accordingly. [99]

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Area per high-power field for some microscope types:
    • Olympus BX50, BX40 or BH2 or AO or Nikon with 15x eyepiece: 0.096 mm2
    • AO with 10x eyepiece: 0.12 mm2
    • Nikon or Olympus with 10x eyepiece: 0.16 mm2
    • Leitz Ortholux: 0.27 mm2
    • Leitz Diaplan: 0.31 mm2
      - "Infiltrating Ductal Carcinoma of the Breast (Carcinoma of No Special Type)". Stanford University School of Medicine . Archived from the original on 11 September 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2019.

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Medullary breast carcinoma is a rare type of breast cancer that is characterized as a relatively circumscribed tumor with pushing, rather than infiltrating, margins. It is histologically characterized as poorly differentiated cells with abundant cytoplasm and pleomorphic high grade vesicular nuclei. It involves lymphocytic infiltration in and around the tumor and can appear to be brown in appearance with necrosis and hemorrhage. Prognosis is measured through staging but can often be treated successfully and has a better prognosis than other infiltrating breast carcinomas.

Metaplastic carcinoma, otherwise known as metaplastic carcinoma of the breast (MCB), is a heterogeneous group of cancers that exhibit varied patterns of metaplasia and differentiation along multiple cell lines. This rare and aggressive form of breast cancer is characterized as being composed of a mixed group of neoplasms containing both glandular and non-glandular patterns with epithelial and/or mesenchymal components. It accounts for fewer than 1% of all breast cancer diagnoses. It is most closely associated with invasive ductal carcinoma of no special type. (IDC), and shares similar treatment approaches. Relative to IDC, MCB generally has higher histological grade and larger tumor size at time of diagnosis, with a lower incidence of axillary lymph node involvement. MCB tumors are typically estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor-2 (HER-2) negative, meaning hormone therapy is generally not an effective treatment option, which correlates to a relatively poor prognosis. MCB was first recognized as a distinct pathological entity in 2000 by the World Health Organization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lobular carcinoma in situ</span> Medical condition

Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) is an incidental microscopic finding with characteristic cellular morphology and multifocal tissue patterns. The condition is a laboratory diagnosis and refers to unusual cells in the lobules of the breast. The lobules and acini of the terminal duct-lobular unit (TDLU), the basic functional unit of the breast, may become distorted and undergo expansion due to the abnormal proliferation of cells comprising the structure. These changes represent a spectrum of atypical epithelial lesions that are broadly referred to as lobular neoplasia (LN).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Male breast cancer</span> Medical condition

Male breast cancer (MBC) is a cancer in males that originates in their breasts. Males account for less than 1% of new breast cancers with about 20,000 new cases being diagnosed worldwide every year. Its incidence rates in males vs. females are, respectively, 0.4 and 66.7 per 100,000 person-years. The worldwide incidences of male as well as female breast cancers have been increasing over the last few decades. Currently, one of every 800 men are estimated to develop this cancer during their lifetimes.

Colon cancer staging is an estimate of the amount of penetration of a particular cancer. It is performed for diagnostic and research purposes, and to determine the best method of treatment. The systems for staging colorectal cancers depend on the extent of local invasion, the degree of lymph node involvement and whether there is distant metastasis.

Prognostic markers are biomarkers used to measure the progress of a disease in the patient sample. Prognostic markers are useful to stratify the patients into groups, guiding towards precise medicine discovery. The widely used prognostic markers in cancers include stage, size, grade, node and metastasis. In addition to these common markers, there are prognostic markers specific to different cancer types. For example estrogen level, progesterone and HER2 are markers specific to breast cancer patients. There is evidence showing that genes behaving as tumor suppressors or carcinogens could act as prognostic markers due to altered gene expression or mutation. Besides genetic biomarkers, there are also biomarkers that are detected in plasma or body fluid which can be metabolic or protein biomarkers.

Mammary secretory carcinoma (MSC), also termed secretory carcinoma of the breast, is a rare form of the breast cancers. MSC usually affects women but in a significant percentage of cases also occurs in men and children. Indeed, McDvitt and Stewart first described MSC in 1966 and termed it juvenile breast carcinoma because an increased number of cases were at that time diagnosed in juvenile females. MSC is the most common form of breast cancer in children, representing 80% of childhood breast cancers, although it accounts for less than 0.15% of all breast cancers.

Endocrine therapy is a common treatment for estrogen receptor positive breast cancer. However, resistance to this therapy can develop, leading to relapse and progression of disease. This highlights the need for new strategies to combat this resistance.

Papillary carcinomas of the breast (PCB), also termed malignant papillary carcinomas of the breast, are rare forms of the breast cancers. The World Health Organization (2019) classified papillary neoplasms of the breast into 5 types: intraductal papilloma, papillary ductal carcinoma in situ (PDCIS), encapsulated papillary carcinoma (EPC), solid-papillary carcinoma (SPC), and invasive papillary carcinoma (IPC). The latter four carcinomas are considered here; intraductal papilloma is a benign neoplasm. The World Health Organization regarded solid papillary carcinoma as having two subtypes: in situ and invasive SPC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasive cribriform carcinoma of the breast</span> Medical condition

Invasive cribriform carcinoma of the breast (ICCB), also termed invasive cribriform carcinoma, is a rare type of breast cancer that accounts for 0.3% to 0.6% of all carcinomas in the breast. It originates in a lactiferous duct as opposed to the lobules that form the alveoli in the breasts' mammary glands. ICCB was first described by Dixon and colleagues in 1983 as a tumor that on microscopic histopathological inspection had a cribriform pattern, i.e. a tissue pattern consisting of numerous "Swiss cheese"-like open spaces and/or sieve-like small holes. The latest edition (2019) of the World Health Organization (2019) termed these lesions invasive cribriform carcinomas indicating that by definition they must have a component that invades out of their ducts of origin into adjacent tissues. In situ ductal cancers that have a cribriform histopathology are regarded as belonging to the group of ductal carcinoma in situ tumors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast</span> Medical condition

Pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast (PACB) is a rare carcinoma derived from the epithelial cells in the lactiferous ducts of the mammary gland. The mammary gland is an apocrine gland. Its lactiferous ducts have two layers of epithelial cells, a luminal layer which faces the duct's lumen and a basal layer which lies beneath the luminal layer. There are at least 4 subtypes of epithelial cells in these ducts: luminal progenitor cells and luminal mature cells which reside in the luminal layer and mammary stem cells and basal cells which reside in the basal layer. Examination of the genes expressed in PACB cancer cells indicate that most of these tumors consist of cells derived from luminal cells but a minority of these tumors consist of cells derived from basal cells.

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