Developmental cognitive neuroscience

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Developmental cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary scientific field devoted to understanding psychological processes and their neurological bases in the developing organism. It examines how the mind changes as children grow up, interrelations between that and how the brain is changing, and environmental and biological influences on the developing mind and brain.

Contents

Developmental cognitive neuroscience is at the boundaries of neuroscience (behavioral, systems, & cognitive neuroscience), psychology (developmental, cognitive, & biobehavioral/ physiological psychology), developmental science (which includes sociology, anthropology, & biology in addition to psychology & neuroscience), cognitive science (which includes computer science, philosophy, dynamical systems, & linguistics in addition to psychology), and even includes socio-emotional development and developmental aspects of social neuroscience and affective neuroscience.

The scientific interface between cognitive neuroscience and human development has evoked considerable interest in recent years, as technological advances make it possible to map in detail the changes in brain structure that take place during development. Developmental cognitive neuroscience overlaps somewhat with fields such as developmental psychology, developmental neuropsychology, developmental psychopathology, and developmental neuroscience, but is distinct from each of them as well. Developmental cognitive neuroscience is concerned with the brain bases of the phenomena that developmental psychologists study. Developmental neuropsychology and developmental psychopathology are both devoted primarily to studying patients, whereas developmental cognitive neuroscience is concerned with studying both typical and atypical development. Developmental neuroscience is devoted entirely to the study of developmental processes in the brain, and primarily during the prenatal period. Developmental cognitive neuroscience, on the other hand, is concerned with interrelations between psychological and biological development. Developmental cognitive neuroscientists study brain development and cognitive, social, and emotional development from the prenatal period through adulthood. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

More recently, developmental cognitive neuroscience is interested in the role of genes in development and cognition. [10] [11] [12] [13] Thus, developmental cognitive neuroscience may shed light on nature versus nurture debates as well as constructivism and neuroconstructivism theories. Developmental cognitive neuroscience research provides data that alternately blends together, clarifies, challenges, and causes revisions in developmental, cognitive, and neuroscientific theories. [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25]

Origins of the discipline

Developmental conference May 24 1989.jpg
Participants at The Development and Neural Bases of Higher Cognitive Functions, Sugarloaf Conference Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 20–24 May 1989.
Mask of a photo of participants of The Developmental and Neural Coginitive Functions, Sugar Loaf Conference Centre, Philadelphia, PA, 20-24 May 1989.jpg
Participants as seen in the photo above: 1. Susan Rose, 2. Judy DeLoache, 3. William Overman, 4. Nathan Fox, 5. Kathryn Boyer, 6. Gerry Stefanatos, 7. Arthur Shimamura, 8. Nora Newcombe, 9. Stuart Zola-Morgan, 10. Judy Chasin, 11. Teresa Pantzer, 12. Barbara Malamut, 13. Adele Diamond, 14. Norman Krasnegor, 15. Marie Perri, 16. Jim Cummings, 17. Linda Acredolo, 18. Keith Nelson, 19. Barry Stein, 20. Rachel Clifton, 21. Richard Nakaniura, 22. Jackson Beatty, 23. Joseph Fagan, 24. Suzanne Craft, 25. Lewis Lipsitt, 26. Eric Knudsen, 27. Wendell Jeffrey, 28. Jonathan Cohen, 29. Joaquin Fuster, 30. Andrew Meltzoff, 31. Daniel Schacter, 32. Phillip Best, 33. Mark Stanton, 34. Douglas Frost, 35. Carolyn Rovee-Collier, 36. Paul Solomon, 37. Claire Kopp, 38. Lynn Nadel, 39. Helen Neville, 40. Emilie Marcus, 41. Richard Thompson, 42. Paula Tallal, 43. Robbie Case, 44. Henry Roediger III, 45. James Ranck Jr., 46. Ruth Colwill, 47. H. G. J. M. Kuypers, 48. Jocelyne Bachevalier, 49. Michael Noetzel, 50. Janet Werker, 51. Mike Richardson, 52. W. Stuart Millar, 53. Steven Keele, 54. Jean Mandler

The origin of the discipline of developmental cognitive neuroscience can be traced back to conference held in Philadelphia in 1989 co-funded by NICHD & NIMH, organized by Adele Diamond, that started the process of developmental psychologists, cognitive scientists, and neuroscientists talking with one another. To bridge the communication gaps, researchers were invited from different fields who were either using the same experimental paradigms to study the same behaviors or were investigating related scientific questions in complementary ways—though they were unaware of one another’s work. They used different words to talk about their work and had different ways of thinking about it, but the concrete, observable behaviors, and the precise experimental conditions under which those behaviors occurred, served to make translation possible. Participants were a small Who’s Who of leaders in developmental science, behavioral neuroscience, and cognitive science. Several new cross-disciplinary collaborations resulted from it, and it is a testament to the value of what came out of the meeting that Oxford University Press tried to acquire the rights to re-issue the book of the meeting’s proceedings 10 years later—The Development and Neural Basis of Higher Cognitive Functions. (The original printing sold out faster than any other New York Academy of Science Annals issue has before or since.) [26]

Developmental psychologists and neuroscientists used to know little of one another’s work. There was so little communication between those fields that for 50 years scientists in both fields were using essentially the same behavioral assay but they did not know it. (Developmental psychologists called the measure the A-not-B task but neuroscientists called it the delayed response task.) In the early 1980s, Diamond not only showed these two tasks showed the identical developmental progression and rely on the same region of prefrontal cortex but through a systematic series of studies in human infants, and infant and adult monkeys with and without lesions to different brain regions. [27] [28] That work was absolutely pivotal in launching the field of developmental cognitive neuroscience because it established the very first strong link between early cognitive development and the functions of a specific brain region. That gave encouragement to others that rigorous experimental work addressing brain-behavior relations was possible in infants. It also fundamentally altered the scientific understanding of prefrontal cortex early in development; clearly it was not silent as accepted wisdom had held.

Mark Johnson's 1997 text Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience [9] was seminal in coining the field's name.

Tools and techniques employed

Absolutely critical to being able to understand brain function in children have been neuroimaging techniques, [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] first EEG & ERPs, [34] [35] [36] then fMRI, [37] [38] and more recently NIRS, [39] [40] MEG, [41] [42] & TMS [43] [44] that look at function and MRI, DTI, & MRS that look at structure, connectivity, and metabolism. Before functional neuroimaging techniques scientists were constrained to trying to understand function from dysfunction (i.e., trying to understand how the brain works from seeing what deficits occur when the brain is damaged or impaired). It is difficult to understate how important technological advances have been to the emerging field of developmental cognitive neuroscience.

When doing in vivo analysis of the brain, we can use neuroimaging techniques to gain insights in order to further study developmental cognitive processes. By using these techniques to measure function in healthy children, as well as unhealthy children, we study the structure and anatomy of the brain, as well as connectivity and function, all of which can further enhance our greater understanding of the relationship between the human brain and behavior. The most interesting angle for developmental neuroimaging is the ability to learn more about how changes to the brain system that occur throughout childhood affect the development of cognitive abilities. It also allows researchers to explore questions that are typically referred to as “nature” versus “nurture.” By using neuroimaging techniques, we can understand the biological process that underlie cognition and the relationship that it has with other external factors, like environmental exposures, learning, and collective life experiences.

EEG & ERPs: In the early to mid 1980s, early components of the Event Related Potential (ERP) were used to study sensory functioning in infants and late components of ERP were used to study cognitive functioning in adults. Scientists then proceeded to expand the use of ERP to study cognitive functioning earlier on in life to gain insights into the brain’s involvement in different processes such as discrimination, categorization, and memory.


Challenges of EEG for Developmental Neuroimaging


MEG : MEG is a neuroimaging technique that records the magnetic fields that are generated by neural activity. A key advantage of this imaging technique is that it provides excellent spatial localization, as well as high temporal resolution of neural events. Like a lot of other popular non-invasive functional neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI and EEG/ERP, it has no harmful effects, no side effects, and no long-term detrimental effects. This means that using its attractive for use in research involving healthy populations and for use in developmental studies and in longitudinal developmental studies.

Data Collection: There are technical and subject factors that come into play when it comes to collecting MEG data for developmental studies.

Data Interpretation: When interpreting MEG data for developmental studies, there are many ways to analyze it since it is compounded with richness. Although, there are anatomical and physiological developments that can impact the observed results and if unfamiliar with these changes, a researcher could wrongly make an interpretation.


fMRI: The use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in developmental populations has increased significantly over the past two decades. Most developmental fMRI research uses cross-sectional sections, examining differences and similarities between children, adolescents, and adults. Although, the use of a cross-sectional study is limited in its ability to provide information about how brain function matures within a population. Therefore, the use of longitudinal fMRI studies offer the advantage of studying developmental processes and removing inter-subject variability. They also do not make any assumptions about the brain-behavior relationship, which makes them well suited to studying developmental changes.

See also

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cognitive neuroscience</span> Scientific field

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology, and computational modeling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnetoencephalography</span> Mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by currents in the brain

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a functional neuroimaging technique for mapping brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents occurring naturally in the brain, using very sensitive magnetometers. Arrays of SQUIDs are currently the most common magnetometer, while the SERF magnetometer is being investigated for future machines. Applications of MEG include basic research into perceptual and cognitive brain processes, localizing regions affected by pathology before surgical removal, determining the function of various parts of the brain, and neurofeedback. This can be applied in a clinical setting to find locations of abnormalities as well as in an experimental setting to simply measure brain activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurolinguistics</span> Neuroscience and linguistics-related studies

Neurolinguistics is the study of neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methods and theories from fields such as neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive science, communication disorders and neuropsychology. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using aphasiology, brain imaging, electrophysiology, and computer modeling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Functional neuroimaging</span>

Functional neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function, often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in certain brain areas and specific mental functions. It is primarily used as a research tool in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and social neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Event-related potential</span> Brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event

An event-related potential (ERP) is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. More formally, it is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to a stimulus. The study of the brain in this way provides a noninvasive means of evaluating brain functioning.

A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Mirror neurons are not always physiologically distinct from other types of neurons in the brain; their main differentiating factor is their response patterns. By this definition, such neurons have been directly observed in humans and primate species, and in birds.

Functional integration is the study of how brain regions work together to process information and effect responses. Though functional integration frequently relies on anatomic knowledge of the connections between brain areas, the emphasis is on how large clusters of neurons – numbering in the thousands or millions – fire together under various stimuli. The large datasets required for such a whole-scale picture of brain function have motivated the development of several novel and general methods for the statistical analysis of interdependence, such as dynamic causal modelling and statistical linear parametric mapping. These datasets are typically gathered in human subjects by non-invasive methods such as EEG/MEG, fMRI, or PET. The results can be of clinical value by helping to identify the regions responsible for psychiatric disorders, as well as to assess how different activities or lifestyles affect the functioning of the brain.

Social neuroscience is an interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding the relationship between social experiences and biological systems. Humans are fundamentally a social species, rather than solitary. As such, Homo sapiens create emergent organizations beyond the individual—structures that range from dyads, families, and groups to cities, civilizations, and cultures. In this regard, studies indicate that various social influences, including life events, poverty, unemployment and loneliness can influence health related biomarkers. The term "social neuroscience" can be traced to a publication entitled "Social Neuroscience Bulletin" which was published quarterly between 1988 and 1994. The term was subsequently popularized in an article by John Cacioppo and Gary Berntson, published in the American Psychologist in 1992. Cacioppo and Berntson are considered as the legitimate fathers of social neuroscience. Still a young field, social neuroscience is closely related to personality neuroscience, affective neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience, focusing on how the brain mediates social interactions. The biological underpinnings of social cognition are investigated in social cognitive neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroimaging</span> Set of techniques to measure and visualize aspects of the nervous system

Neuroimaging is the use of quantitative (computational) techniques to study the structure and function of the central nervous system, developed as an objective way of scientifically studying the healthy human brain in a non-invasive manner. Increasingly it is also being used for quantitative research studies of brain disease and psychiatric illness. Neuroimaging is highly multidisciplinary involving neuroscience, computer science, psychology and statistics, and is not a medical specialty. Neuroimaging is sometimes confused with neuroradiology.

Neuroconstructivism is a theory that states that phylogenetic developmental processes such as gene–gene interaction, gene–environment interaction and, crucially, ontogeny all play a vital role in how the brain progressively sculpts itself and how it gradually becomes specialized over developmental time.

Interactive Specialization is a theory of brain development proposed by the British developmental cognitive neuroscientist Mark Johnson, formerly head of the Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development at Birkbeck, University of London, London and who is now Head of Psychology at the University of Cambridge.

Integrative neuroscience is the study of neuroscience that works to unify functional organization data to better understand complex structures and behaviors. The relationship between structure and function, and how the regions and functions connect to each other. Different parts of the brain carrying out different tasks, interconnecting to come together allowing complex behavior. Integrative neuroscience works to fill gaps in knowledge that can largely be accomplished with data sharing, to create understanding of systems, currently being applied to simulation neuroscience: Computer Modeling of the brain that integrates functional groups together.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marcel Just</span>

Marcel Just is D. O. Hebb Professor of Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University. His research uses brain imaging (fMRI) in high-level cognitive tasks to study the neuroarchitecture of cognition. Just's areas of expertise include psycholinguistics, object recognition, and autism, with particular attention to cognitive and neural substrates. Just directs the Center for Cognitive Brain Imaging and is a member of the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition at CMU.

Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. Researchers in educational neuroscience investigate the neural mechanisms of reading, numerical cognition, attention and their attendant difficulties including dyslexia, dyscalculia and ADHD as they relate to education. Researchers in this area may link basic findings in cognitive neuroscience with educational technology to help in curriculum implementation for mathematics education and reading education. The aim of educational neuroscience is to generate basic and applied research that will provide a new transdisciplinary account of learning and teaching, which is capable of informing education. A major goal of educational neuroscience is to bridge the gap between the two fields through a direct dialogue between researchers and educators, avoiding the "middlemen of the brain-based learning industry". These middlemen have a vested commercial interest in the selling of "neuromyths" and their supposed remedies.

Anders Martin Dale is a prominent neuroscientist and professor of radiology, neurosciences, psychiatry, and cognitive science at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), and is one of the world's leading developers of sophisticated computational neuroimaging techniques. He is the founding Director of the Center for Multimodal Imaging Genetics (CMIG) at UCSD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attentional control</span> Individuals capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore

Attentional control, colloquially referred to as concentration, refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control and attentional shifting are thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.

Neuroimaging intelligence testing concerns the use of neuroimaging techniques to evaluate human intelligence. Neuroimaging technology has advanced such that scientists hope to use neuroimaging increasingly for investigations of brain function related to IQ.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles A. Nelson III</span>

Charles A. Nelson III is an American neuroscientist and psychologist. His international projects include a long-standing project on institutionalized children in Romania, children growing up in a slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh, infants in Puerto Rico exposed to the Zika virus, and children growing up in challenging circumstances in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Dr. Nelson has also focused his research efforts on the development of memory and the ability to recognize facial expressions of emotion in infants and young children. Recently, Nelson was recognized for his on-going research with infants and children at high risk for developing autism spectrum disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BJ Casey</span> American psychology professor

Betty Jo "BJ" Casey is an American cognitive neuroscientist and expert on adolescent brain development and self control. She is the Christina L. Williams Professor of Neuroscience at Barnard College of Columbia University where she directs the Fundamentals of the Adolescent Brain (FAB) Lab and is an Affiliated Professor of the Justice Collaboratory at Yale Law School, Yale University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alexander T. Sack</span> German neuroscientist and cognitive psychologist

Alexander T. Sack is a German neuroscientist and cognitive psychologist. He is currently appointed as a full professor and chair of applied cognitive neuroscience at the Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience at Maastricht University. He is also co-founder and board member of the Dutch-Flemish Brain Stimulation Foundation, director of the International Clinical TMS Certification Course, co-director of the Center for Integrative Neuroscience (CIN) and the Scientific Director of the Transcranial Brain Stimulation Policlinic at Maastricht University Medical Centre.

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