The geology of Israel includes igneous and metamorphic crystalline basement rocks from the Precambrian overlain by a lengthy sequence of sedimentary rocks extending up to the Pleistocene and overlain with alluvium, sand dunes and playa deposits. [1]
Israel is underlain by igneous and metamorphic crystalline basement rocks of the Arabian Craton formed during the Precambrian, although in places these rocks remain poorly studied. Precambrian rocks are only exposed in southern parts of the country, such as amphibolite at Makhtesh Gadol. Other Precambrian units include the Taba Gneiss, Roded and Elat schist, gneiss and migmatite, syenite, Duhayla Granodiorite, Darba Tonalite, Abu Saq'a Schist, Abu Barqa Metasedimens, Saramuj Conglomerate, Sammaniya Microgranite, Yutum Granite, Quani Diorite, Elat Conglomerate, rhyolite, gabbro and other basic rocks. [2]
Mantle-derived basalt magma ascended through rocks in the Timna Valley in southern Israel, providing the heat to form alkali granite, alkali rhyolite dikes and layered serptinized gabbro in the core of Har Timna. [3]
The Burj Dolomite Shale formation (which includes sandstone, dolomite, and mudstone) and the Umm Ishrin Sandstone formation both date to the Cambrian and appear in the stratigraphic record of central Israel. The region has little evidence of mid-Paleozoic rocks; sandstone, limestone, clay, and gypsum represent most of the sequence from the Permian and Triassic.
Southern Israel has Ordovician age rocks in the Disi Sandstone Formation. Other Paleozoic rock units such as the Yam Suf Group (sandstone, conglomerate, mudstone, dolomite and limestone, Amudei Shelomo and Timna formations), and Shehoret and Netafim formations (all from the Cambrian) appear only in the south. [4]
Limestone up to 193 meters thick marks the Upper Jurassic in central Israel, followed by the basalt Tayasir volcanic rocks; the 120 meter Kurnub Group (sandstone, limestone and clay); and 670 meters thick Nabi Sa'id, Ein el Esad, Hidra, Rama and Kefira formation (marl, chalk, sandstone and limestone) from the early Cretaceous. Basalt and basanite are both exposed from the Cretaceous in the north.
Limestone, dolomite, chalk and marl formed during Turonian and Santonian times, chalk and chert during the Campanian. The Mishash Formation of the same age contains similar rocks, 86 meters thick, as well as phosphorite. The Hatrurim Formation, or "Mottled Zone," encompasses metamorphosed Maastrichtian through Miocene rocks. In places the Mesozoic was a time of microgabbro and diabase intrusion. [5]
Chalk, marl and clay of the Mount Scopus Group formed from the Senonian into the Paleocene. During the Paleogene, deposits up to 150 meters thick comprised the Adulam Formation (chert and chalk); 350 meters of limestone of the Timrat, Meroz, and Yizre'el formations; 100 meters of Maresha Formation (chalk); and the similar Avedat Group and Bet Guvrin Formation—all in the Eocene.
The 40 meter thick Lakhish Formation (limestone); 230 meter thick Hordos and Umm Sabun formations (sandstone, mudstone, siltstone, and conglomerate); and the 50 meter thick Ziqlaq Formation (limestone) deposited in the Miocene. Intermediate basalt erupted during the same time period. Pliocene rocks include 30 meters of marl in the Yafo Formation and marl, conglomerate and sandstone 20 meters thick in the Bira, Gesher and Pleshet formations.
Conglomerate and volcanic rocks mark the transition to the Quaternary. During the last 2.5 million years, sandstone, mudstone, oolitic limestone, conglomerate, gypsum, and aragonite varves were deposited as well as travertine, calcareous sandstone, red sandy loam, and alluvium. Recent sands and alluvium dominates most river valleys and coastal areas, while conglomerate, gravel and playa deposits are more common in the south. Basalt and basanite continued to erupt in the north. [5]
Salt is an essential commodity and has been used in the past as an important currency. Mount Sodom was used for salt mining in prehistoric times, and archeological excavations uncovered installations for the loading of salt from the Roman period. In the modern era, salt production plants were built in Atlit, Eilat and along the Dead Sea. The salt is produced by the process of solar evaporation in ponds and seawater desalination.
A high concentration of magnesium with high purity made Israel one of the most important sources of its production. Potassium chloride (potash) is a rich fertilizer for agricultural crops and is produced south of the Dead Sea. During the production process, bromine-rich solutions (used in medicine, industry and cosmetics) remains in the evaporation pools, but its production ceased after it was discovered that this substance emits ozone into the atmosphere.
Phosphate deposits have been discovered since 1950 in several areas in the south of the country, mainly in the craters in the Negev and near Arad. Copper is mined from shafts in the Timna Valley. Manganese ore was also found in the Timna Valley but not in economical quantities. There are a few concentrations of iron ore in Galilee, in the Beit Netofa Valley, at the foot of Mount Tabor, and several sites in the Negev, but these remain unexploited.
The Geology of Bangladesh is affected by the country's location, as Bangladesh is mainly a riverine country. It is the eastern two-thirds of the Ganges and Brahmaputra river delta plain stretching to the north from the Bay of Bengal. There are two small areas of slightly higher land in the north-centre and north-west composed of old alluvium called the Madhupur Tract and the Barind Tract, and steep, folded, hill ranges of older (Tertiary) rocks along the eastern border.
The geology of Tasmania is complex, with the world's biggest exposure of diabase, or dolerite. The rock record contains representatives of each period of the Neoproterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. It is one of the few southern hemisphere areas that were glaciated during the Pleistocene with glacial landforms in the higher parts. The west coast region hosts significant mineralisation and numerous active and historic mines.
The Caballo Mountains, are a mountain range located in Sierra and Doña Ana Counties, New Mexico, United States. The range is located east of the Rio Grande and Caballo Lake, and west of the Jornada del Muerto; the south of the range extends into northwest Doña Ana County. The nearest towns are Truth or Consequences and Hatch.
The Bass Formation, also known as the Bass Limestone, is a Mesoproterozoic rock formation that outcrops in the eastern Grand Canyon, Coconino County, Arizona. The Bass Formation erodes as either cliffs or stair-stepped cliffs. In the case of the stair-stepped topography, resistant dolomite layers form risers and argillite layers form steep treads. In general, the Bass Formation in the Grand Canyon region and associated strata of the Unkar Group-rocks dip northeast (10°–30°) toward normal faults that dip 60+° toward the southwest. This can be seen at the Palisades fault in the eastern part of the main Unkar Group outcrop area. In addition, thick, prominent, and dark-colored basaltic sills intrude across the Bass Formation.
The geology of Tanzania began to form in the Precambrian, in the Archean and Proterozoic eons, in some cases more than 2.5 billion years ago. Igneous and metamorphic crystalline basement rock forms the Archean Tanzania Craton, which is surrounded by the Proterozoic Ubendian belt, Mozambique Belt and Karagwe-Ankole Belt. The region experienced downwarping of the crust during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, as the massive Karoo Supergroup deposited. Within the past 100 million years, Tanzania has experienced marine sedimentary rock deposition along the coast and rift formation inland, which has produced large rift lakes. Tanzania has extensive, but poorly explored and exploited natural resources, including coal, gold, diamonds, graphite and clays.
The geological history of Zambia begins in the Proterozoic eon of the Precambrian. The igneous and metamorphic basement rocks tend to be highly metamorphosed and may have formed earlier in the Archean, but heat and pressure has destroyed evidence of earlier conditions. Major sedimentary and metamorphic groups formed in the mid-Proterozoic, followed by a series of glaciations in the Neoproterozoic and much of the Paleozoic which deposited glacial conglomerate as well as other sediments to form the Katanga Supergroup and rift-related Karoo Supergroup. Basalt eruptions blanketed the Karoo Supergroup in the Mesozoic and Zambia shifted to coal and sandstone formation. Geologically recent windblown sands from the Kalahari Desert and alluvial deposits near rivers play an important role in the modern surficial geology of Zambia. The country has extensive natural resources, particularly copper, but also cobalt, emeralds, other gemstones, uranium and coal.
The geology of Morocco formed beginning up to two billion years ago, in the Paleoproterozoic and potentially even earlier. It was affected by the Pan-African orogeny, although the later Hercynian orogeny produced fewer changes and left the Maseta Domain, a large area of remnant Paleozoic massifs. During the Paleozoic, extensive sedimentary deposits preserved marine fossils. Throughout the Mesozoic, the rifting apart of Pangaea to form the Atlantic Ocean created basins and fault blocks, which were blanketed in terrestrial and marine sediments—particularly as a major marine transgression flooded much of the region. In the Cenozoic, a microcontinent covered in sedimentary rocks from the Triassic and Cretaceous collided with northern Morocco, forming the Rif region. Morocco has extensive phosphate and salt reserves, as well as resources such as lead, zinc, copper and silver.
The geology of Georgia is the study of rocks, minerals, water, landforms and geologic history in Georgia. The country is dominated by the Caucasus Mountains at the junction of the Eurasian Plate and the Afro-Arabian Plate, and rock units from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic are particularly prevalent. For much of its geologic history, until the uplift of the Caucasus, Georgia was submerged by marine transgression events. Geologic research for 150 years by Georgian and Russian geologists has shed significant light on the region and since the 1970s has been augmented with the understanding of plate tectonics.
The geology of Bosnia & Herzegovina is the study of rocks, minerals, water, landforms and geologic history in the country. The oldest rocks exposed at or near the surface date to the Paleozoic and the Precambrian geologic history of the region remains poorly understood. Complex assemblages of flysch, ophiolite, mélange and igneous plutons together with thick sedimentary units are a defining characteristic of the Dinaric Alps, also known as the Dinaride Mountains, which dominate much of the country's landscape.
The geology of Moldova encompasses basement rocks from the Archean and Paleoproterozoic dating back more than 2.5 billion years, overlain by thick sequences of Neoproterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.
The geology of North Macedonia includes the study of rocks dating to the Precambrian and a wide array of volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks formed in the last 539 million years.
The geology of Mississippi includes some deep igneous and metamorphic crystalline basement rocks from the Precambrian known only from boreholes in the north, as well as sedimentary sequences from the Paleozoic. The region long experienced shallow marine conditions during the tectonic evolutions of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, as coastal plain sediments accumulated up to 45,000 feet thick, including limestone, dolomite, marl, anhydrite and sandstone layers, with some oil and gas occurrences and the remnants of Cretaceous volcanic activity in some locations.
The geology of Utah, in the western United States, includes rocks formed at the edge of the proto-North American continent during the Precambrian. A shallow marine sedimentary environment covered the region for much of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, followed by dryland conditions, volcanism, and the formation of the basin and range terrain in the Cenozoic.
The geology of Montana includes thick sequences of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks overlying ancient Archean and Proterozoic crystalline basement rock. Eastern Montana has considerable oil and gas resources, while the uplifted Rocky Mountains in the west, which resulted from the Laramide orogeny and other tectonic events have locations with metal ore.
The geology of Afghanistan includes nearly one billion year old rocks from the Precambrian. The region experienced widespread marine transgressions and deposition during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, that continued into the Cenozoic with the uplift of the Hindu Kush mountains.
The geology of Uzbekistan consists of two microcontinents and the remnants of oceanic crust, which fused together into a tectonically complex but resource rich land mass during the Paleozoic, before becoming draped in thick, primarily marine sedimentary units.
The geology of Lithuania consists of ancient Proterozoic basement rock overlain by thick sequences of Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic marine sedimentary rocks, with some oil reserves, abundant limestone, dolomite, phosphorite and glauconite. Lithuania is a country in the Baltic region of northern-eastern Europe.
Geology of Latvia includes an ancient Archean and Proterozoic crystalline basement overlain with Neoproterozoic volcanic rocks and numerous sedimentary rock sequences from the Paleozoic, some from the Mesozoic and many from the recent Quaternary past. Latvia is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe.
The geology of Syria includes ancient metamorphic rocks from the Precambrian belonging to the Arabian Craton, as well as numerous marine sedimentary rocks and some erupted basalt up to recent times.
The geology of Yukon includes sections of ancient Precambrian Proterozoic rock from the western edge of the proto-North American continent Laurentia, with several different island arc terranes added through the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, driving volcanism, pluton formation and sedimentation.