Gray smooth-hound

Last updated

Gray smooth-hound
Mustelus californicus.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Order: Carcharhiniformes
Family: Triakidae
Genus: Mustelus
Species:
M. californicus
Binomial name
Mustelus californicus
Gill, 1864
Mustelus californicus distmap.png

The gray smooth-hound (also spelled as smoothhound) (Mustelus californicus) is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is spotless and smooth with a narrow head and long blunted snout. [2] This shark is found on continental shelves of the subtropical eastern Pacific. Its range extends from northern California to the Gulf of California (between latitudes 40° N and 23° N), usually residing in waters less than 80 meters (262 ft 6 in) deep. [3] [4] Adults are between 0.5 and 1.6 meters (1 ft 8 in to 5 ft 3 in) long. [5] Furthermore, this shark is viviparous with an egg yolk placenta. [6] Reproduction occurs annually and inland estuaries are common nursery grounds. Although there is little data on the shark’s population trends and catch quantities, the gray smooth-hound is not considered as vulnerable to overfishing. [3] Additionally, there have been three reported sightings of albinism in this species, which is rare for elasmobranchs (rays and sharks). [7] [8]

Contents

Description

The gray smooth-hound is a medium-sized spotless shark with a short narrow head. [2] [9] It is morphologically similar to others of its genus with its slender body, long blunt snout, conspicuous sub-ocular ridges, and dorsolateral eyes. [3] The gray smooth-hound is brown to dark-gray dorsally and white ventrally. [2] The ventral caudal lobe (lower part of tail) is poorly developed and the second dorsal fin is relatively small. [10] [11]

The gray smooth-hound can be distinguished by the snout shape and placement of the dorsal fin. It is often confused with the brown smooth-hound (Mustelus henlei), though there are several characteristics that differ between these two species. In the gray smooth-hound, the midpoint of the dorsal fin is closer to the start of the pelvic fin than it is to the end of the pectoral fin (see image below). In the brown smooth-hound, the midpoint of the dorsal fin is equidistant from the pelvic and pectoral fins. Additionally, the tooth shape of these two species differs slightly: gray smooth-hounds have smooth teeth that are blunt and not cusped whereas a basal cup can be seen on the sides of the middle upper teeth in the brown smooth-hound. The sides of the mandible are concaved in the gray smooth-hound but are slightly convex in brown smooth-hounds. Moreover, the posterior side of the dorsal fins have no scales and are frayed in the brown smooth-hound, which is unlike the gray smooth-hound. Scales on the sides of the brown smooth-hound are tricuspid (three pronged), which is not seen in gray smooth-hounds. Tooth and scale differences can only be observed under magnification. [2] [12] Additionally, another species in the genus Mustelus, the sicklefin smooth-hound

Dorsal fin differences between gray and brown smooth-hounds. Adapted from Miller & Lea 1972. Gray smooth-hound and brown smooth-hound comparison.jpg
Dorsal fin differences between gray and brown smooth-hounds. Adapted from Miller & Lea 1972.

(Mustelus lunulatus), can be easily distinguished by a pointed lower lobe of the caudal fin, which is not present in the gray smooth-hound. The sicklefin smooth-hound also has a longer snout, shorter upper labial furrows, and eyes set further apart. [3] [12] The white-margin fin smooth-hound (Mustelus albipinnis) has white margins on its fins, which the gray smooth-hound lacks. The sharptooth smooth-hound (Mustelus dorsalis) has higher-cusped teeth as compared to the gray smooth-hound. [3]

The total length of mature gray smooth-hounds ranges from around 50–160 cm (19.7-63.0 in). Females mature at a larger size and have a larger maximum reported size than males (see biology and ecology section for more details). The size at birth is around 20–30 cm (7.9-11.8 in). [5]

Distribution and habitat

A captive gray smooth-hound Mustelus californicus SEA LIFE.jpg
A captive gray smooth-hound

The gray smooth-hound can be found in warm waters along the coast of California and Baja California, ranging from Cape Mendocino, California to Mazatlán, Mexico. In the warm waters of Mexico and Southern California, these sharks do not migrate. However, in colder northern waters, sharks will migrate to central-northern California in the summer and then return to more southern regions during the rest of the year. [3] [5] These sharks are bottom-dwellers, living on continental shelves as well as shallow muddy estuaries and bays along the coast and into the Gulf of California. [13] In California, this shark is usually found in shallow waters that are less than 12 meters (39 ft 4 in) deep, but it has been found to a maximum depth of 67 meters (219 ft 10 in). In the Gulf of California, the majority of gray smooth-hounds are found less than 80 meters (262 ft 6 in) deep but have been found up to 265 meters (869 ft 5 in) below the sea surface. [3]

Important nursery grounds for the gray smooth-hound include the Biosphere Reserve of the upper Gulf of California, the Colorado Delta, Elkhorn Slough, and Full Tidal Basin in Bolsa Chica have also been identified as nursery grounds. [3] [9] [13] [14] In the Full Tidal Basin (after restoration efforts), gray smooth-hounds have become seasonally abundant in the summer, where the population is mostly made up of juveniles. They are most often found at the edges between eelgrass patches and muddy substrates. Eelgrass is home to many prey items of the gray smooth-hound. Additionally, most gray smooth-hounds select warmer habitats found in the middle of the basin during the day, then venture into cooler habitats where their prey is found at night. It is thought that this helps thermoregulate their body temperature. The amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is also thought to influence their movements. [13] [14]

Biology and ecology

Growth

Gray smooth-hounds are a relatively fast-growing shark species. It only takes 2–3 years for females to mature and 1–2 years for males. They live up to a maximum of around 9 years. Generation time for this species is around a decade. At birth, females are around 23–37 cm (9.1-14.6 in) long and males are around 27-44 (10.6-17.3 in) cm long. Gray smooth-hounds are considered mature when females reach a total length of 86 cm and males reach a length of 72 cm (28.3 in). [9] The maximum reported size is 1.632 meters (5 ft 4 in) for females and 1.16 meters (3 ft 10 in) for males. [5]

Feeding

The gray smooth-hound is a benthic coastal predator and mostly feeds on crustaceans. Specifically, they are known to feed on crabs (Cancrids and Grapsids), shrimps, scallops, ghost shrimp ( Callianassa spp.). [13] [14] [15] The red rock crab ( Cancer productus ) and pacific rock crab ( Cancer antennarius ) account for most of the adult diet. Gray smooth-hounds smaller than 100 cm (39.3 in) mostly feed on the yellow shore crab ( Hemigrapsus oregonensis ). The yellow shore crab, along with the slender crab ( Cancer gracilis ), have been found to be more than 69% of the total food volume for these smaller sharks. Adults will also incorporate fish into their diet such as herring (specifically Clupea harengus pallasi) and toadfish ( Porichthys notatus ). Though rare, innkeeper worms ( Urechis caupo ) have been found in gray smooth-hound stomachs. [15]

Reproduction

The gray smooth-hound is a viviparous (live-bearing) shark. When the embryo is developing, the yolk sac differentiates into a yolk sac placenta, which aids in nutrient and gas exchange between the embryo and the mother. [3] Similar to other smooth-hound species, Gray smooth-hounds reproduce annually. The gestation period is estimated to be between 9–12 months. Reports for pups per litter vary from 3-17 pups. Due to their early age of maturity, large litter sizes, and yearly reproduction cycles, these sharks have high reproductive output. [3] [9] Moreover, the number of female and male sharks found per litter is about equal (1:1 sex ratio). There is a positive linear relationship between litter size and mother total-length, where longer females have larger litters. [9]

Gray smooth-hounds have oviducal glands, which would allow females to store sperm from multiple matings. This suggests that females mate with multiple males (known as polyandry), though this has yet to be confirmed. [9] [6] The first and only record of the gray smooth-hound’s mating system comes from a paper published in 2021. [6] Tissues were collected from two small females, and their pups were genetically analyzed. They found that that these two females were genetically monogamous (where the offspring of a female are only related to one male). One possible reason is that the females engaged in post-copulatory mechanisms (i.e. sperm competition and cryptic female choice), choosing sperm from one male and fertilize her eggs with. This would result in genetic monogamy within a polyandrous species. However, it is also possible that the small females avoided multiple mating encounters which would also result in genetic monogamy. Additionally, the females may be able to selectively abort embryos with low fitness. Other species of smooth-hounds seem to have low or moderate levels of multiple paternity (females carrying offspring from multiple males), so, if this information is confirmed, gray smooth-hounds would be unique in their genus for genetic monogamy. Since current mating system information comes from one study with a low sample size, more research is needed to fully understand whether gray smooth-hounds engage in multiple matings and whether they are genetically monogamous. [6]

Parasites

Several parasites are known to infect the gray smooth-hound, which include Calicotyle californiensis, [16] Chloromyxum ovatum, [17] Dollfusiella litocephalus, Dollfusiella macrotrachelus, Lacistorhynchus dollfusi, Symcallio pellucidum, [18] and Ptychogonimus megastomum. [19]

Albinism

Embryos from a normally-pigmented female caught in 1971. The left ovisac (on the left) has three albino sharks whereas the right ovisac (on the right) has two albino sharks. These embryos were arranged as they were found in the ovisacs, and embryos at the bottom of the picture are the most posterior. Photo by Richard A. Ajeska. Retrieved from Copeia, 1973, No.3. Albino gray smooth-hounds.jpg
Embryos from a normally-pigmented female caught in 1971. The left ovisac (on the left) has three albino sharks whereas the right ovisac (on the right) has two albino sharks. These embryos were arranged as they were found in the ovisacs, and embryos at the bottom of the picture are the most posterior. Photo by Richard A. Ajeska. Retrieved from Copeia, 1973, No.3.

True albinism is rare in Elasmobranchs. However, there have been three recorded instances of albinism in the gray smooth-hound. The first was an immature male (34 cm or 13.4 in long) caught on June 7, 1959. It was unclear whether this shark was a true albino as its eye color could not be determined. The second was an immature female (26.3 cm or 10.4 in long) caught on July 3, 1969. Then, on December 9, 1971, a pregnant female gillnetted in Elkhorn slough was found to have 5 albino embryos out of 10 total offspring. 3 of 6 males and 2 of 4 females were albino. 2 albino embryos were found in one ovisac, 3 from the other. These embryos were identified as truly albino—completely white with pink eyes. The pregnant female was gray and thus, heterozygous for albinism. [7] [8]

Human interactions

Gray smooth-hounds are caught by recreational fishers, caught as by-catch, and targeted by fisheries, though this shark has low economic value. Usually, they are caught with gillnets, trawlers, or with line and hook. Young sharks are likely able to swim through gillnets. Fishing demand is highest in the Gulf of California, where as much as 500 kg (1102.3 lbs) of gray smooth-hound has been caught during a single fishing trip. [3]

A 2015 IUCN assessment categorized gray smooth-hounds as a species of least concern. This is partially because population data from Baja California Sur implies that gray smooth-hound populations are stable. Additionally, their life history traits (e.g. high reproductive output and early age of maturity, see growth and reproduction) make these sharks more resilient to fishing and allow a larger capacity to recover from overfishing as compared with other sharks. [3] This claim is further supported by a 2017 impact assessment, which found that gray smooth-hounds were found to not be particularly vulnerable to overfishing for similar reasons. However, the population trend of gray smooth-hounds is unknown, and the catch and by-catch data are incomplete. The Mexican government does regulate elasmobranch fisheries, but there is no information on the effectiveness of these regulations and whether they are enforced. [14] More research is needed to fully understand the population patterns of gray smooth-hounds.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The dusky smooth-hound, also called the smooth dogfish or the dog shark, is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae. This shark is an olive grey or brown in color, and may have shades of yellow or grayish white. Females live to 16 years and males have a lifespan of 10 years. M. canis was the first shark recognised to have viral infections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sand tiger shark</span> Species of shark

The sand tiger shark, grey/gray nurse shark, spotted ragged-tooth shark or blue-nurse sand tiger, is a species of shark that inhabits subtropical and temperate waters worldwide. It inhabits the continental shelf, from sandy shorelines and submerged reefs to a depth of around 191 m (627 ft). They dwell in the waters of Japan, Australia, South Africa, and the east coasts of North and South America. The sand tiger shark also inhabited the Mediterranean, however it was last seen there in 2003 and is presumed extinct in the region. Despite its common names, it is not closely related to either the tiger shark or the nurse shark.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shovelnose guitarfish</span>

The shovelnose guitarfish, Rhinobatos productus, is a ray in the family Rhinobatidae. As its common name suggests, this species possesses a pointed shovel-shaped snout and a body similar to that of a guitar with a larger head and long, slender body. The shovelnose is considered to be a primitively developed ray, with many features of both sharks and rays. The shovelnose guitarfish was first considered to be a shark because of its dorsal fins' shape. The coloration of this species ranges from olive to sandy brown which aids in the species' ability to camouflage in the sand. Other identifying features of the R. productus include a depressed body shape with a dorsoventrally flattened opaque snout, no gap between the pectoral and pelvic fins, and protruding eyes. Also, this species has two dorsal fins closer to the posterior end of its body and caudal fin. Shovelnose guitarfish have around 102 to 112 small round teeth. Sexual maturity is reached in females at an estimated age of 8 years and 7 years in males.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smooth-hound</span> Genus of sharks

Mustelus, also known as the smooth-hounds, is a genus of sharks in the family Triakidae. The name of the genus comes from the Latin word mustela, meaning weasel. It should not be confused with the genus name Mustela, which is used for weasels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopard shark</span> Species of shark

The leopard shark is a species of houndshark, in the family Triakidae. It is found along the Pacific coast of North America, from the U.S. state of Oregon to Mazatlán in Mexico. Typically measuring 1.2–1.5 m (3.9–4.9 ft) long, this slender-bodied shark is immediately identifiable by the striking pattern of black saddle-like markings and large spots over its back, from which it derives its common name. Large schools of leopard sharks are a common sight in bays and estuaries, swimming over sandy or muddy flats or rock-strewn areas near kelp beds and reefs. They are most common near the coast, in water less than 4 m (13 ft) deep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slender smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The slender smooth-hound or gollumshark is a species of ground shark in the family Pseudotriakidae. It is endemic to the waters around New Zealand, where it is usually found close to the bottom over the continental slope at depths of 300–600 m (980–1,970 ft). An extremely slim, plain brownish shark reaching 1.1 m (3.6 ft) in length, the slender smooth-hound can be identified by its broad, flattened head with a long, distinctively bell-shaped snout. Its mouth is angular with short furrows at the corners, and contains a very high number of tooth rows in both jaws. Its two dorsal fins are roughly equal in size.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Short-tail stingray</span> Species of cartilaginous fish

The short-tail stingray or smooth stingray is a common species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It occurs off southern Africa, typically offshore at a depth of 180–480 m (590–1,570 ft), and off southern Australia and New Zealand, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 156 m (512 ft). It is mostly bottom-dwelling in nature and can be found across a range of habitats from estuaries to reefs, but also frequently will swim into open water. One of the largest stingrays in the world, this heavy-bodied species can grow upwards of 2.1 m (6.9 ft) across and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Its plain-colored, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc is characterized by a lack of dermal denticles even in adults, and white pores beside the head on either side. The body can have colors as well as dark grey or black with rows of white spots along each wing. Its tail is usually shorter than the disc and thick at the base. It is armed with large tubercles and a midline row of large thorns in front of the stinging spine which has the dorsal and ventral fin folds behind.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk shark</span> Species of shark

The milk shark is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, whose common name comes from an Indian belief that consumption of its meat promotes lactation. The largest and most widely distributed member of its genus, the milk shark typically measures 1.1 m (3.6 ft) long, and can be found in coastal tropical waters throughout the eastern Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific regions. Occurring from the surface to a depth of 200 m (660 ft), this species is common near beaches and in estuaries, and has been recorded swimming up rivers in Cambodia. Juveniles are known to inhabit tidal pools and seagrass meadows. The milk shark has a slender body with a long, pointed snout and large eyes, and is a nondescript gray above and white below. This shark can be distinguished from similar species in its range by the long furrows at the corners of its mouth, and seven to 15 enlarged pores just above them.

The common smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from the British Isles to South Africa, and in the Mediterranean Sea, Madeira, and the Canary Islands at depths ranging from 5 to 625 m. While they can grow to 200 cm, their usual maximum size is 150 cm. They commonly grow to 100–120 cm with a birth length around 35 cm. The reproduction of commons smooth-hounds is viviparous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sharptooth houndshark</span> Species of shark

The sharptooth houndshark or spotted gully shark is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae found in shallow inshore waters from southern Angola to South Africa. Favoring sandy areas near rocky reefs and gullies, it is an active-swimming species that usually stays close to the bottom. This robust shark reaches 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in length and has characteristically large, rounded fins; the pectoral fins in particular are broad and sickle-shaped in adults. It also has a short, blunt snout and long furrows around its mouth. This species is gray or bronze in color above, with variable amounts of black spotting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Banded houndshark</span> Species of shark

The banded houndshark is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae, common in the northwestern Pacific Ocean from the southern Russian Far East to Taiwan. Found on or near the bottom, it favors shallow coastal habitats with sandy or vegetated bottoms, and also enters brackish water. This shark reaches 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length. It has a short, rounded snout and mostly narrow fins; the pectoral fins are broad and triangular, and the trailing margin of the first dorsal fin is almost vertical. It is gray above and lighter below; younger sharks have darker saddles and dots, which fade with age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starry smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The starry smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is found on the continental shelves of the northeast Atlantic, between latitudes 61 and 16° N, from the surface to a depth of 200 m (660 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotless smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The spotless smooth-hound is a species of houndshark, in the family Triakidae, found on the continental shelves of the northwest Pacific, between latitudes 40° N and 11° N, from the surface to a depth of 300 m. It can grow to a length of up to 1 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brown smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The brown smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is found on the continental shelves of the subtropical eastern Pacific, from northern California to the Gulf of California, as well as Ecuador and Peru between latitudes 43° N and 18° S, from the surface to depths of 200 m (660 ft). It can grow up to a length of 1 m. The reproduction of this shark is viviparous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starspotted smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The star-spotted smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is a medium-sized shark with irregular white spots across its body. It is found in Northwestern Pacific as well as Kenyan water. This shark mainly inhabits shallow seas and feeds on benthic animals. This shark is ovoviviparous and gives birth to 2-6 larvae per clutch. Currently, due to overfishing, this species is on the edge of extinction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Speckled smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The speckled smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae. It is found on the continental shelf of the eastern Pacific, between latitudes 0° and 54° S, at depths between 16 and 50 m. It can reach a length of 130 cm (51 in). Collectively with certain other species of shark, it is known as "tollo".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The Gulf smooth-hound is a houndshark of the family Triakidae, found on the continental shelves of the tropical western central Atlantic. The reproduction of this houndshark is placental viviparous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humpback smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The humpback smooth-hound is a species of houndshark and a part of the family Triakidae. The most noticeable difference between Mustelus whitneyi and its relatives, is the slight curvature, causing a "humpback" appearance located in front of its primary dorsal fin. It is found on the continental shelves of the tropical southeast Pacific, from Peru to southern Chile, between latitudes 3° S and 54° S. These sharks are demersal feeders but range from depths between 15 and 210 metres. Humpback smooth-hound sharks are small sharks, reaching a maximum size of 118 cm (46 in) in total length. Mustelus whitneyi typically feed on teleosts and invertebrates in the benthic and pelagic ecosystems, most important prey being the peruvian anchovy. These humpback smooth-hound sharks are placental viviparious sharks, meaning that the embryo forms inside the mother tethered by the placental cord. The threats currently causing population decline to humpback smooth-hound sharks surround issues with local fisheries and management.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Australian grey smooth-hound</span> Species of shark

The Australian grey smooth-hound or also known as the grey gummy shark is a species of houndshark classified under the large family Triakidae. It is one of the twenty-eight species belonging to the genus Mustelus, which are often small in length. While members of the genus Mustelus may be found globally in tropical and temperate waters, the grey gummy shark in particular is native to the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean waters surrounding Australia and is particularly widespread in deep coastal waters. The grey gummy shark is known to be a viviparous species and gives birth to live young. With little data available, it is regarded to have a relatively stable population and possesses little threat to humans.

References

  1. ↑ Pérez-Jiménez, J.; Vásquez, V.E.; Chabot, C.L.; Ebert, D.A. (2015). "Mustelus californicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2015: e.T161334A80672080. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T161334A80672080.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Miller, D. J., & Lea, R. N. (1972). Guide to the coastal marine fishes of California. California Department of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin(157). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6s04v367
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 IUCN. (2014). Mustelus californicus: Pérez-Jiménez, J., Vásquez, V.E., Chabot, C.L. & Ebert, D.A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T161334A80672080. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T161334A80672080.en
  4. ↑ Compagno, Dando, & Fowler, Sharks, Collins Gem, HarperCollins, London (2006) ISBN   0-00-721986-5
  5. 1 2 3 4 Yudin, K. G., & Cailliet, G. M. (1990). Age and Growth of the Gray Smoothhound, Mustelus californicus, and the Brown Smoothhound, M. henlei, Sharks from Central California. Copeia, 1990(1), 191. https://doi.org/10.2307/1445835
  6. 1 2 3 4 Tárula-Marín, A. O., & Saavedra-Sotelo, N. C. (2021). First record of the mating system in the grey smoothhound shark ( Mustelus californicus ). Marine Biology Research, 17(4), 362–368. https://doi.org/10.1080/17451000.2021.1964533
  7. 1 2 3 Talent, L. G. (1973). Albinism in Embryo Gray Smoothhound Sharks, Mustelus californicus, from Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay, California. Copeia, 1973(3), 595. https://doi.org/10.2307/1443129
  8. 1 2 Cohen, J. L. (1973). An Albino Grey Smoothhound Mustelus californicus Gill. California Fish and Game, 59(3), 210–211
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Pérez-Jiménez, J. C., & Sosa-Nishizaki, O. (2010). Determining reproductive parameters for population assessments of two smoothhounds (Mustelus californicus and Mustelus lunulatus) from the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science, 86(1), 3–13
  10. ↑ Compagno, L. J. V. (Ed.). (2001). FAO species catalogue for fishery purposes. 1,2: Bullhead, macherel and carpet sharks, (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformesand Orectolobiformes). https://www.iucnssg.org/uploads/5/4/1/2/54120303/fao_species_catalogue_for_fishery_purposes_-_1984_-_sharks_of_the_world_-_an_annotated_and_illustrated_catalogue_of_shark_species_known_to_date_-_part_2_-_carcharhiniformes.pdf
  11. ↑ Gill, T. (1864). Second Contribution to the Selachology of California. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, 16(3), 147–151. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4623921
  12. 1 2 Starks, E. C. (1917). On the Differential Characters between Mustelus henlei and Mustelus californicus. Copeia, 46, 61. https://doi.org/10.2307/1435660
  13. 1 2 3 4 Espinoza, M., Farrugia, T. J., & Lowe, C. G. (2011). Habitat use, movements and site fidelity of the gray smooth-hound shark (Mustelus californicus Gill 1863) in a newly restored southern California estuary. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 401(1–2), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2011.03.001
  14. 1 2 3 4 Freedman, R., Espinoza, M., Voss, K. M., Farrugia, T., Whitcraft, C. R., & Lowe, C. G. (2017). Does Estuary Restoration Design Alter the Fine Scale Movements of Gray Smoothhounds ( Mustelus californicus ) in Southern California? Bulletin, Southern California Academy of Sciences, 116(2), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.3160/soca-116-02-88-97.1
  15. 1 2 Talent, L. G. (1982). Food habits of the gray smoothhound, Mustelus californicus, the brown smoothhound, Mustelus henlei, the shovelnose guitarfish, Rhinobatos productus, and the bat ray, Myliobatis californica, in Elkhorn Slough, California. California Fish and Game, 68(4), 224–234
  16. ↑ Bullard, S. A., & Overstreet, R. M. (2000). Calicotyle californiensis n. Sp. And Calicotyle urobati n. Sp. (Monogenea: Calicotylinae) from Elasmobranchs in the Gulf of California. American Society of Parasitologists, 86(5), 939–944.
  17. ↑ Jameson, A. P. (1931). Notes on Californian Myxosporidia. The Journal of Parasitology, 18(2), 59. https://doi.org/10.2307/3271964
  18. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Mustelus californicus". FishBase . July 2006 version.
  19. ↑ Merlo-Serna, A. I., & García-Prieto, L. (2016). A checklist of helminth parasites of Elasmobranchii in Mexico. ZooKeys, 563, 73–1
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.