Higher education in Myanmar has experienced a large expansion since 1988, although ranks as one of the lowest globally for universities. Due to the student protests in the 8888 uprising, the Myanmar government closed down all universities for two years. Additional student protests in 1996 and 1998 caused all universities to be closed for another three years.[1]
The Ministry of Education administers most higher education in Myanmar. The Ministry of Education implements short and long term education development plans to improve the quality, access, and diversity of higher education. The government envisions higher education as an avenue for empowering people to make educated decisions and capitalize on economic opportunities within Myanmar, and therefore, foresees investment in education as a fruitful investment for the people of Myanmar.[2]
Universities in Myanmar remain highly centralized and state run. Student enrollment in university in 2014 was 550,000. Teaching revolves around textbook instruction with little to no research focus. Universities offer bachelor's degree programs, master's degree programs, and doctorate degree programs. The higher education system follows a 4-1-3 year program with 4 years for a bachelor's degree, one year of qualifying classes, and 3 years for a master's degree.[3]
There are two branches of the Department of Higher Education, one for Lower Myanmar and the other for Upper Myanmar, under the Ministry of Education. The branches are responsible for the administration and coordination of higher education in Myanmar. Higher education administrative policy falls under two councils. The Universities' Central Council holds responsibility in generating broad policies for higher education. The Council of University Academic Bodies' responsibilities lie in academic regulations and academic work. The Myanmar Education Committee was established in 1991 and was renamed the National Education Committee in 2011 The committee remains responsible for up-keeping cultural, social, and traditional values within the education system, while respecting the economic and political visions of the country. The committee is chaired by the Union Minister of Education.[4]
Myanmar has 163 higher education universities. All of the universities are state funded with a funding for higher education for a fiscal year. The higher education funding increased by 107 percent from fiscal year 2012 to 2013 [5] The Ministry of Education controls 66 universities and the remaining 97 universities fall under control of the 12 other ministries. The 12 other ministries include Health, Science and Technology, Defense, Culture, Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Agriculture and Irrigation, Livestock Breeding and Fisheries, Co-operatives, Union Civil Service Board, Religious Affairs, Border Affairs, and Transport.[6] Different disciplines are split between different universities, such as medical, technical, agricultural, educational, and economic schools. The universities are run by their corresponding ministry. For example, medical schools are run by the Ministry of Health and Sports, agricultural schools are run by Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, etc. The number of universities in each ministry breaks down in 2011–2012 school year as the following:
[3] There are 33 types of universities, which has increased from 1988 where there were 9 types of universities only offering arts and science disciplines. Some universities have begun offering morning, evening, and night courses, some towards degrees and diplomas, to allow students more flexibility in their schedules.[6]
Myanmar is divided into 24 development zones, and the Ministry of Education ensures that each of these zones has at least one liberal arts and science university, one technical university, and one computer science university. The break down of the number of universities by development zone is as follows:
State/Region
Number of Institutions
Kachin
9
Kayah
3
Kayin
4
Chin
3
Sagaing
13
Tainintharyi
7
Bago
9
Magway
11
Mandalay
36
Mon
4
Rakhine
5
Yangon
33
Shan
34
Ayeyarwady
12
Total
163
The Ministry of Education provides two distance-learning universities for students who cannot attend a conventional university. University of Distance Education, Yangon in lower Myanmar and University of Distance Education, Mandalay in upper Myanmar have been established. There are 19 available disciplines at these universities. Myanmar studies, public policy, English, and creative writing are some of the disciplines that have been recently added under the education development plans. Students can transfer credits from conventional universities to universities of distance education and vice versa. The universities of distance education use modern technology to facilitate learning. By using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System, distance education lessons can be transmitted to learning centers that are located most conveniently for students.
The Ministry of Education established the National Center for Human Resource Development to provide students with more flexible options for higher education. The Center creates vocational, technological, and professional courses to meet students' demands. Human resource centers adapt to the needs of local communities such as foreign languages for the tourist industry. Human resource centers offer certificates, degrees, undergraduate diplomas, postgraduate diplomas, and postgraduate degree courses. The human resource centers aim to provide students with a parallel education system that allows individuals to pursue higher levels of knowledge and job-related skills. Students have the flexibility to complete degrees in at their own pace and in their own free time.[6]
Entrance Structure
University entrance derives from students' tenth grade standard examination marks. The Ministry of Education (Burma) runs the matriculation exams, which occur at the same time annually around country. About 300,000 students take the matriculation exam each year. Some universities set a minimum exam score for students acceptance in the university. Minimum scores vary depending on the university, but medical schools and senior engineering schools demand the highest exam scores.[7]
Development
The Ministry of Education created a Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan to improve the quality of education in Myanmar. The Plan aims to inspire creativity, analytical thinking, and a desire to learn in students. All subjects and disciplines have undergone review. New assessment techniques are being administered to test students depth and breadth of knowledge associated with critical thinking skills to replace the old assessment techniques of rote memorization and fact regurgitation. The Plan desires to create new curriculums and teaching methods to instill analytical thinking, creativity, and modern technological skills in students. A large task of the Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan is to change the teaching methodology in higher education to learning centered approaches such as project-based learning, problem based learning, and fieldwork. All higher education institutions now have computer training centers and multimedia lecture rooms to improve technological literacy and presentation skills. Teaching seminars and workshops help teaching learn how to promote critical thinking, analytical thinking, problem solving, and creative thinking.[8]
Since December 2002, all universities offer core and foundation courses to expand students' knowledge and provide a more holistic education. The Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan aims to introduce more multi-disciplinary courses to allow students to integrate different disciplines and think beyond one discipline. Courses focused on specific regional qualities are administered to attend to community needs. The Plan has also been changing the undergraduate education system from a department based system to a faculty based system. This process started in 2002 and has been being implemented in steps.
In 2011, three-year course degree programs changed to four year degree programs to match Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) higher education standards. The 2011–2012 school year was the first year to add the additional school year to undergraduate degree programs under the Ministry of Education. Coinciding with the new four-year course path, new curriculums and new syllabuses modeling from ASEAN countries have been introduced in undergraduate and postgraduate universities. University credit systems are changing with the inclusion of academic credit from foreign universities through exchange programs. New undergraduate and graduate programs have been launched to support diversified education programs and to prepare specialists at international standards.
Doctorate programs have been introduced within the past 20 years. By 2012, 4,892 doctorate candidates have received degrees from doctorate programs in Myanmar. Currently, 2,053 students are attending doctorate programs from eight different universities. Doctorate programs invite foreign professors for temporary teaching to increase educational quality. Additionally in 2002, a program was initiated that enabled professors 45 years older and with 10 or more years of teaching experience to attend PhD programs and produce a dissertation from their respective field of study to increase their knowledge without subtracting from their current teaching professions.[6]
e-Education
The objectives of e-Education in Myanmar are as follows:
To utilize technology in academic settings
To transform the working force to a learning force
To create and sustain a learning dominated society
To bring Myanmar education to international standards
The Special Four-Year Plan initiated in 2000-2001 FY brought increased technological transformation to academic settings. The Special Four-Year Plan included e-learning centers, computer training centers, and e-resource centers to improve technology learning to higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education administered conference rooms, multimedia lecture rooms, internet access in schools, a video conferencing system. All higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education have access to the internet. The Ministry of Education is using e-learning to provide short-term learning lectures and appeal to a wide array of audiences. Online learning has been introduced at training centers using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System.
The Ministry of Education administers two training programs for teachers and professors for e-instruction. The Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching and Postgraduate Diploma in Multimedia Arts focus on developing ways for educating teachers on incorporating technology and multimedia in the classroom.[6]
Education Reform
The Conference on Development Policy Options, held in February 2012 in Nay Pyi Taw, created the Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR) to focus on education reform. Recommendations by the CESR indicates the importance of education reform for economic development in Myanmar. The CESR conducts three phases to ensure the progress of education development.[9]
A Policy Dialogue, Empowering Higher Education-A Vision for Myanmar's Universities, took place on June 29–30, 2013 in Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar. The Policy Dialogue was requested by the Chair of Higher Education Law and Yangon University Revitalization Committees and the leader of Burma's National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi. Attendees at the Policy Dialogue targeted education reform to decentralize universities, increase inclusivity and equity of universities, and increase international connectivity.[5]
On October 7, 2013, in Nay Pyi Taw, a forum on Pragmatic Education Reform took place to discuss the laws, regulations, visions, and plans to implement a pragmatic education reform on the national level. The forum provided 19 tasks for the creation of a draft for National Education Policy and Law. The Education Promotion Implementation Committee provides guidance for ensuring the procedures and processes of the education reform. The Union Minister of the Ministry of Technology and Science chairs the Education Promotion Implementation Committee. The committee has a working group consisting of education related ministries and non-government organizations that holds discussions and provides a medium for the public to voice their opinions and ideas on education reform. The working group holds meetings and workshops and accepts emails and letters about public opinion towards the education reform process. A draft of the National Education Law was submitted in May 2014 to the Union Government.[10]
The National Education Law was passed by Parliament in July and signed by President Thein Sein on September 30, 2015. The bill would create a National Education Commission that would have control over the education system by mandating budgets and policies.[11] Since the passing of the National Education Law, there have been student protesting in Yangon and Mandalay claiming that the bill further centralizes higher education. The students demand autonomy for universities.[12]
MOE has successfully completed a 3.5 year Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR) to develop an evidence-based National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) for 2016–2021.
NESP Goal of Myanmar: Improved teaching and learning, vocational education and training, research and innovation leading to measurable improvements in student achievement in all schools and educational institutions
The NESP provides a ‘roadmap’ for sector-wide reforms that will dramatically improve access to quality education for students at all levels of the national education system. The NESP will equip Myanmar students, youth and adult learners with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in the 21st century. The education system will ensure that all citizens:achieve minimum national learning standards, learn how to think critically and creatively, gain leadership skills that enable them to help others in their communities and understand, respect and fulfil the rights and responsibilities of all citizens.
The MOE, Myanmar will endeavour to empower higher education in such ways as: Empowerment through autonomy, which would allow universities to manage their academic activities in an effective manner, Inclusiveness, a basic requirement to ensure equal opportunities for all groups in Myanmar society in terms of access and success in higher education. Empowerment for change, referring to the ability of each university to transform itself into an innovative institution. Empowerment for the future, through reforms of the curriculum and pedagogical practices with the purpose of better preparing the young women and men of Myanmar who will be responsible for creating a more democratic society and building a more productive economy.
Burma's Rangoon University 1957, History lecture by Professor Kyaw Thet's YouTube video Teaching media was English even for that History, arts subject.
Postgraduate education, graduate education, or graduate school consists of academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications usually pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree.
A bachelor's degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six years. The two most common bachelor's degrees are the Bachelor of Arts (BA) and the Bachelor of Science. In some institutions and educational systems, certain bachelor's degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate educations after a first degree has been completed, although more commonly the successful completion of a bachelor's degree is a prerequisite for further courses such as a master's or a doctorate.
A Bachelor of Education is an undergraduate academic degree which prepares students for work as a teacher in schools. A Bachelor of Education program typically lasts three to four years and combines both coursework and practical experience in educational settings. The curriculum is designed to provide foundational knowledge in pedagogy, educational psychology, teaching methodologies, and subject-specific training. Graduates of this program are equipped with the skills necessary to foster a supportive and effective learning environment for their students.
Doctor of Medicine is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In the United States, and some other countries, the M.D. denotes a professional degree. This generally arose because many in 18th-century medical professions trained in Scotland, which used the M.D. degree nomenclature. In England, however, Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (M.B.B.S.) was used and eventually in the 19th century became the standard in Scotland too. Thus, in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other countries, the M.D. is a research doctorate, honorary doctorate or applied clinical degree restricted to those who already hold a professional degree (Bachelor's/Master's/Doctoral) in medicine. In those countries, the equivalent professional degree to the North American, and some others' usage of M.D. is still typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery.
A graduate diploma is generally a qualification taken after completion of a first degree, although the level of study varies in different countries from being at the same level as the final year of a bachelor's degree to being at a level between a master's degree and a doctorate. In some countries the graduate diploma and postgraduate diploma are synonymous, while in others the postgraduate diploma is a higher qualification.
Higher education in Mauritius includes colleges, universities and other technical institutions. Public university education has been free to students since 2019. The sector is managed by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) which has the responsibility for allocating public funds, and fostering, planning and coordinating the development of post-secondary education and training. Formerly the Tertiary Education Commission, in 2020 it was reformed into the HEC and a separate Quality Assurance Authority (QAA) for auditing of qualifications.
Liaoning Normal University in Dalian, Liaoning Province, China is a comprehensive university with an emphasis on teacher training. It has the largest teacher college in Liaoning Province.
Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) is a state government-owned autonomous university in Kochi, Kerala, India. It was founded in 1971 and has three campuses: two in Kochi and one in Kuttanad, Alappuzha, 66 km (41 mi) inland.
The educational system in Taiwan is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The system produces pupils with some of the highest test scores in the world, especially in mathematics and science. Former president Ma Ying-jeou announced in January 2011 that the government would begin the phased implementation of a twelve-year compulsory education program by 2014.
This is an index of education articles.
Khulna University is a public university in Gollamari, Khulna, Bangladesh. It is near the river Moyur, beside the Sher e Bangla Road. The academic programs of Khulna University started on 31 August 1991 with 80 students in four disciplines. As of 2023, the university has 29 disciplines under 8 schools.
In the 21st century, the Government of Egypt has given greater priority to improving the education system. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), Egypt is ranked 97 in the HDI, and 9 in the lowest 10 HDI countries in the Middle East and Northern Africa, in 2014. With the help of the World Bank and other multilateral organizations Egypt aims to increase access in early childhood to care and education and the inclusion of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) at all levels of education, especially at the tertiary level. The government is responsible for offering free education at all levels. The current overall expenditure on education is about 12.6 percent as of 2007. Investment in education as a percentage of GDP rose to 4.8 in 2005 but then fell to 3.7 in 2007. The Ministry of Education is also tackling a number of issues: trying to move from a highly centralized system to offering more autonomy to individual institutions, thereby increasing accountability. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative finds that Egypt is achieving 89.3% of what should be possible for the right to education, at their level of income.
The education system of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan includes basic, secondary, and higher education and has dramatically evolved since the establishment of the state in the early 1900s. The role played by a good education system has been significant in the development of Jordan from a predominantly agrarian to an industrialized nation over time.
Northwest University of Political Science and Law is a university in Xi'an, and one of the top law schools in China. The university serves as the educational center of law in the northwest part of China and as one of the key bases of law institutions of higher learning in China.
Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology (XUAT) is a joint venture between the People's Government of Shaanxi Province, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People's Republic of China and the Ministry of Education. "It is one of the key universities directly under the former Ministry of Metallurgical Industry, the national "Central and Western Universities Basic Capacity Building Project", the national "Key Discipline Project", the high level university in Shaanxi Province, the first batch of doctoral and master's degree universities in China. and bachelor's degree authorizing units, selected in the 111 Plan, the first batch of the National Cultivation Program for Excellent Engineer Education, the National Base for International Science and Technology Cooperation, the National Master of Engineering Graduate Education Innovation College, and the National Public Postgraduate Program for the Construction of High-level Universities. It is a multi-disciplinary university featuring civil engineering, environment and municipal administration, materials metallurgy and other related disciplines, with engineering and technology disciplines as the main subjects. In 1956, when the faculties and departments of higher education institutions were adjusted for the third time, the school was formed from the former Northeast Institute of Technology, Northwest Institute of Technology, Qingdao Institute of Technology and the Department of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Municipal Engineering of Sunan Institute of Technology, then named Xi'an Institute of Architectural Engineering. College of Architecture. In March 1994, approved by the former State Education Commission, the name was changed to Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology. The Graduate School was established in 2011. As of September 2019, the school Yanta, Cottage Campus and Huaqing Science and Education Industrial Park cover a total area of more than 4,300 acres; there are 20 colleges and 63 undergraduate majors; there are 9 post-doctoral mobile stations, 9 first-discipline doctoral points, 26 first-discipline master's points, and 16 master's degree categories; there are more than 2,800 teaching staff, including more than 1,700 full-time teachers and 3 full-time academicians; students More than 34,000 people.
The Guanghua School of Management, Peking University (北京大学光华管理学院) is the business school of Peking University, a public university in Beijing, China.
Northwest Normal University is a public university in Lanzhou, Gansu Province of the People's Republic of China. The university is authorized by the State Council of the Central Government of the People's Republic of China to grant associate degrees, bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees in more than 80 subject areas.
East China Jiaotong University is a university in Nanchang, Jiangxi province, China. It was formerly known as Shanghai Railway Institute, which was moved from Shanghai to Nanchang in 1971.
University of El Imam El Mahdi is a public Sudanese university based in the town of Kosti, Sudan. The university was founded in 1994 as a public university funded by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. It is named in honor of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi, the leader of the Mahdist revolution which overthrew the Ottoman-Egyptian administration and established their own "Islamic and national" government in Sudan (1885-1898).
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