In 2023, the university enrollment rate was 60.2% according to the Ministry of Education, representing 47 million mainland Chinese students enrolled in 4-year university and college degree programs in some 3,074 Chinese tertiary institutions.[1] Entry into universities is intended to be meritocratic in which successful entry depends only on the result of the Gaokao entrance examination.[2][3] Usually, 12 years of formal education is a prerequisite for entry into an undergraduate degree.[4] Entry is not influenced or determined by sporting activities, extracurricular programs, donations, or alumni parents and siblings. Chinese education authorities have emphasized meritocracy as a social equalizer.[2]
There are 13 statutory types of academic degrees in China: Bachelor/Master/Doctor of Philosophy, Economics, Law, Education, Literature, History, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine, Management, Military Science, and Fine Arts. These degree names are designated by the degree program's academic emphasis and the classification of disciplines.[5][6][7][8]
China is also a major destination for international students, being the most popular country in Asia for international students,[9] the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students,[10] and the second most popular in the world.[11] In 2017, China surpassed the U.S. with the highest number of scientific publications.[12][13] There were 17 Chinese universities on lists of the global top 200 behind only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of the overall representation in the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system combining three of the world's most influential university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[14] China has dominated the QS BRICS University Rankings and the THE's Emerging Economies University Rankings, claiming seven of the top 10 spots for both rankings. China is also the most-represented nation overall.[15][16] Regardless of various rankings of the Chinese universities, the Ministry of Education of China does not advocate, support or recognize any ranking published by other institutions.[17]
The traditional Chinese education system is based on legalist and Confucian ideals. The teaching of Confucius has shaped the overall Chinese mindset for the past 2500 years.[22] But, other outside forces have played a large role in the nation's educational development. The First Opium War of 1840, for example, opened China to the rest of the world. As a result, Chinese intellectuals discovered the numerous western advances in science and technology. This new information greatly impacted the higher education system and curriculum.
Tianjin University, established in 1895, the first modern university in China. The university was established in October 1895 as Imperial Tientsin University (天津北洋西學學堂) by a royal charter of theGuangxu Emperorof Qing dynasty with Sheng Xuanhuai as its first president and later renamed Peiyang University. It was the first government-run university in modern China where western science and technology was its main focus. The school motto was "Seeking truth from facts" (实事求是). In 1951, followed by an order of the Chinese Communist government, the university was renamed Tianjin University and became one of the largest multidisciplinary engineering universities in China and one of the first 16 national key universities accredited by the nation in 1959.[23][24]
Peking University, established in 1898, is the second modern university of China. It was founded as Imperial Peking University (京師大學堂) in 1898 in Beijing as a replacement of the ancient Guozijian (國子監), the national central institute of learning in China's traditional educational system.
Soviet influence in the early 1950s brought all higher education under government leadership. Research was separated from teaching. The government also introduced a central plan for a nationally unified instruction system, i.e. texts, syllabi, etc. The impact of this shift can still be seen today. Chinese higher education continues its struggle with excessive departmentalisation, segmentation, and overspecialisation in particular.
From 1967 to 1976, China's Cultural Revolution took another toll on higher education, which was devastated more than any other sector of the country. The enrollment of postsecondary students can be used as example to illustrate the impacts. The number dropped from 674,400 to 47,800. This has had a major impact on education in the 21st century. The decline in educational quality was profound.
In 1977, Deng Xiaoping made the decision of resuming the National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gaokao). The first group that was admitted to college after the 11-year suspension of the Gaokao consisted of 273,000 students, known as the Class of 1977. From the 1980s on, Chinese higher education has undergone a series of reforms that have slowly brought improvement. The government found that schools lacked the flexibility and autonomy to provide education according to the needs of the society. Structural reform of higher education consists of five parts:
reforms of education provision
management
investment
recruitment and job-placement
inner-institute management—the most difficult.[25]
The reforms aim to provide higher education institutions more autonomy and the ability to better meet the needs of students. Instead of micromanagement, the state aims to provide general planning.
The Provisional Regulations Concerning the Management of Institutions of Higher Learning, promulgated by the State Council in 1986, led to a number of changes in administration and adjusted educational opportunity, direction and content. Reform allowed universities and colleges to:
choose their own teaching plans and curricula
to accept projects from or cooperate with other socialist establishments for scientific research and technical development in setting up "combines" involving teaching, scientific research, and production
to suggest appointments and removals of vice presidents and other staff members;
to take charge of the distribution of capital construction investment and funds allocated by the state
to be responsible for the development of international exchanges by using their own funds.[citation needed]
Reforms picked up the pace in 2000, with the state aiming to complete the reform of 200 universities operating under China's ministries and start 15 university-based scientific technology parks.[26]
In 2019, the Ministry of Education (MOE) reported that there were 2,956 higher education institutions (HEIs) across the country. 2,688 were regular HEIs (including 257 independent colleges), 1,265 universities offered bachelor's degrees, and 828 institutions offered postgraduate programs. In addition, there were 757 non-state colleges/universities (including 257 independent colleges and 1 college for adults). The MOE also reported 40.02 million students enrolled in higher education, an increase of 1.69 million from the year prior.[27]
Despite the large number of HEIS, the higher education system does not meet the needs of 85 percent of the college-age population.[28]
In China, according to ownership-based categories of HEIs, the higher education can be divided into two categories---State-owned or government-owned HEIs, including Regular HEIs, Independent Institutions, Higher Vocational Colleges, Adult HEIs, and non-government or private universities.[29] Regular HEIs is the cornerstone in China's higher education, while private universities development could not be ignored.[30]
In October 2015, The State Council of the People's Republic of China published the 'Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World First Class Universities and First Class Disciplines' (Overall Plan for Double First-Class Construction), which aims to comprehensively develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by building and strengthening their disciplines and faculties, and eventually developing all the universities included in this plan into 'world-first-class' universities by 2050, making new arrangements for the development of higher education in China. The Double First-Class Construction represents a whole new way of ranking universities in China, replacing previous projects such as 'Project 211', 'Project 985' or 'Project Characteristic Key Disciplines'.[31]
The Ministry of Education of China does not advocate, support or recognize any ranking published by other institutions.[17] The quality of universities and higher education in China is internationally recognized as China has established educational cooperation and exchanges with 188 countries and regions and 46 major international organizations, and signed agreements with 54 countries such as the US, British, Germany, Australia and Canada on mutual recognition of higher education qualifications and academic degrees.[33][34]
In 2017, China surpassed the U.S. with the highest number of scientific publications.[12][13] China has dominated the QS BRICS University Rankings and the THE's Emerging Economies University Rankings, claiming seven of the top 10 spots for both rankings. China is also the most-represented nation overall.[15][16] As of 2020, China tops the QS Asia University Rankings list with over 120 universities including in the ranking, and five Chinese universities appear in the Asia Top 10, which is more than any other country.[35]
As of 2023, China tops the list for the first time for the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU)[36] and the U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking 2022–2023,[37] two of the fourth most observed global university rankings apart from the QS and THE.[38] There were 17 Chinese universities on lists of the global top 200 behind only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of the overall representation in the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system combining three of the world's most influential university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[14]
According to THE China Subject Ratings 2020 conducted by the Time Higher Education World University Rankings, Chinese universities are on a par with their counterparts in the US, the UK, and Germany across 89 subjects ahead of others like France, South Korea, and Russia. The country scores above the global average of B score, with 46 percent of its universities’ grades were A+, A, or A−, only slightly behind the US (49 percent).[39] The QS rankings by subjects 2021 indicated that universities in China now have a record number in the top 50 universities in the world across all 51 subjects in five broad discipline areas: “Arts and Humanities”, “Natural Sciences”, “Social Sciences and Management”, “Engineering & Technology”, and “Life Sciences and Medicines”.[40] In 2020, five Chinese universities appear in the Global Top 10 by the numbers of the International patent applications via the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which is more than any country.[41]
On 18 September 2020, the members of a Chinese expert group, which was headed by Lin Huiqing, Chairman of the Medical Education Expert Committee of the Ministry of Education and former Vice Minister of the Ministry of Education, unanimously agreed that Tsinghua University has been fully established as a world-class university.[42]
The Nationwide Unified Examination for Admissions to General Universities and Colleges (普通高等学校招生全国统一考试), commonly abbreviated as Gaokao (高考; 'Higher Exam'), is the annual national undergraduate admission exam of China, held in early June. The exam is held by provincial governments under directions from the Ministry of Education and is required for undergraduate admissions to all higher education institutions in the country. The Gaokao is taken by high school seniors at the end of their final year.
International students
With China's rising national strength and popularity of Chinese in the world, China as a study destination attracts thousands of foreign students abroad and the number of foreign students continues to grow rapidly in recent years. Since 2005, China has become the most popular country in Asia and the sixth largest country in the world in hosting international students.[43] The top ten countries with students studying in China include South Korea, Japan, USA, Vietnam, Thailand, Russia, India, Indonesia, France and Pakistan.[44][45][46] According to 2014 data from Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, there were more than 377,054 foreign students from 203 countries or regions study in all the 31 provinces in China, with an increase of 5.77% over the same period last year.[47][48] In 2015, a record breaking 397,635 international students went to China, solidifying its position as the third most popular destination country after only the UK and the US for overseas students.[49] While US and the UK attracted nearly one-third of all globally mobile students, their leadership is under threat in the "Third Wave" of political turbulence and intense competition from English-medium Instruction or English-taught Programs in countries like China and Continental Europe.[50] In 2014, the largest source of foreign students came from Asia, accounting almost 60% of the total, followed by Europe 18%, Africa 11% respectively.[47] For individual country, the top three countries of origins were South Korea (62,923), United States (24,203) and Thailand (21,296).[47] Only 10% of foreign students receive Chinese Government Scholarship and the rest 90% are self-funded.[47]
In 2018, according to the most recent statistics from the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, China (hosting 492,185 international students in 2018) has overtaken the UK (hosting 458,520 international students in 2018 according to Study in UK) to become the host of second largest international students population, after the USA.[51] In 2018, International students have enrolled in over 1004 higher education institutions in China.[52]
Study abroad
Wealthier Chinese families are more likely to send their kids abroad to receive higher education. Free academic atmosphere, high-quality teaching and new way to cultivate talents---all these advantages contribute to the flood of Chinese students arriving in United States, United Kingdom, Germany and other developed countries. Chinese students have been the largest foreign group in USA since 2010, with 157,588 arriving between 2010 and 2011.[47] The same situation happened in United Kingdom and Germany. Western education will likely remain the leading choice for Chinese students due to its cross-disciplinary fields and development of critical thinking.[53]
Partnering can be economically salubrious, either if the scholars choose to stay in the host country or return to the mainland. Most Chinese students who go abroad are among the best and brightest from their home country. Thus, if they choose to stay, they can benefit the economy of their host country when they gain employment and become members of their new communities. If they leave, they may maintain the contacts and connections they may have established, and also leave a positive impression on their hosts.[54]
Funding
Considering institution funding, it varies dramatically among different universities. In order to adapt to the fierce global competition in education, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China initiated Project 211 in mid 1990s aimed at strengthening about 100 institutions of higher education and key disciplinary areas as a national priority for the 21st century.[55] On May 4, 1998, President Jiang Zemin declared that “China must have a number of first-rate universities of international advanced level”, so Project 985 was launched.[55] The total number of Project 985 is 39 and all of them belong to 211 project at the same time.[55] The initial aim is to promote China's educational competitiveness and establishment of a number of leading disciplines in the world. In October 2015, the central government of China announced a new plan called Double First-Class Construction to promote the elite universities in China and replace previous Project 211 and Project 985. In September 2017, the full list of Double First-Class Construction was published, which aims to comprehensively develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by building and strengthening their disciplines and faculties, and eventually developing all the universities included in this plan into 'world-first-class' universities by 2050. 140 Chinese elite universities are included in this plan.[21]
Meanwhile, it is also the beginning to widen the gap and cause the imbalanced distribution of scientific research funds between key universities and common public universities. Within the project, it is not only a glory but also hints numerous tangible benefits. The majority of public universities’ development lies to all levels of government funds. Entry in this project means you will gain more research funds. According to another data from Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, from 2009 to 2013, the total government research funding for 39 Project 985 institutions is 13.9 billion RMB, with 73 Project 211 Institutions approximately 5.1 billion RMB and rest of 670 common undergraduate colleges only 7.9 billion RMB. In June 2016, the Ministry of Education of China reconfirmed that both Project 211 and Project 985 had been abolished and replaced by the Double First-Class Construction.[56][55]
Between 2002 and 2020, the percentage of young adults holding a higher diploma increased from 15% to 54%. This aggravates graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification, credentialism and educational inflation.[57] As a result of the predicament of unemployment, educators, students, and the Ministry of Education is promoting training in skills for the market economy that would complement the more traditional classroom learning and the focus on "hard" credentials. In Chinese universities, students clubs and special training activities aim to cultivate soft skills in students, assisting in promoting resilient personalities and life skills as preparation for the uncertainties in the job market.[58] While the total number of enrollments in Chinese higher education institutions has been expanding for years, the unemployment rate among young people has also been increasing. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the unemployment rate for urban residents aged 18 to 24 surged from 17.3% to 21.3%,[59] highlighting a significant challenge for the Chinese job market for new graduates.
Meanwhile, in recent years, Chinese university teachers have had low job satisfaction, showing emotional exhaustion and dissatisfaction with the current personnel system, yet, so far, they are powerless to change this.[60]
↑ "研究生教育学科专业目录（2022年）"(PDF). Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. September 14, 2022. Archived(PDF) from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
↑ Sheehy, Kelsey (October 8, 2013). "Explore the World's Top Universities". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on October 24, 2014. Asia is among the fastest growing destinations for international students, and foreign enrollment at universities in Indonesia and South Korea have more than doubled since 2005, the agency reports. China continues to be the most popular destination in the region, though, ranking third among countries that host the most international students, IIE reports.
1 2 "Emerging Economies". Times Higher Education (THE). January 22, 2020. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
↑ "90% Of China’s Super-Rich Want To Send Children Abroad" International Business TimesArchived September 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine April 7, 2012
↑ Hizi, Gil (2019). "Marketised "Educational Desire" and the Impetus for Self-improvement: The Shifting and Reproduced Meanings of Higher Education in Contemporary China". Asian Studies Review. 43 (3): 493–511. doi:10.1080/10357823.2019.1630365. S2CID198806156.
↑ Li, Yan (2013). "Young faculty job perceptions in the midst of Chinese higher education reform: the case of Zhejiang University". The Journal of Psychology. 33 (3): 273–294. doi:10.1080/02188791.2013.787388.
Further reading
Agelasto Michael and Bob Adamson (eds). Higher Education in Post-Mao China. Hong Kong University Press, 1998. ISBN962-209-450-3
Hayhoe, Ruth . China's Universities and the Open Door. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1989. xii, 249 p.p. ISBN087332501X. On the early stages of reform in higher education.
Hayhoe, Ruth. China's Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict. New York: Garland Pub., Garland Reference Library of Social Science, 1996. xxv, 299pp. ISBN0815318596. The competing models of education before and after 1949.
Li Mei . "Cross-border flows of students for higher education: Push–pull factors and motivations of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau". Higher Education, 2007
Rui Yang. Third Delight: The internationalization of higher education in China. Routledge, 2002.
Zha Qiang (Ed.) (2013). Education in China. Educational History, Models, and Initiatives. Gt Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing
Zhou Ji, Minister of the Ministry of Education. Higher Education in China. Cengage Learning; 1st edition (July 30, 2005) ISBN981-254-364-3
Chongqing University is a public university in Chongqing, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
Hunan University is a public university in Yuelu, Changsha, Hunan, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
Sichuan University (SCU) is a public university in Chengdu, Sichuan, China. The university is affiliated with and funded by the Ministry of Education. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
The Minzu University of China (MUC) is a national public university in Beijing, China. It is affiliated with the National Ethnic Affairs Commission of China. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
Tianjin University, previously Peiyang University (北洋大學), is a national public research university in Tianjin, China. Established in 1895 by a royal charter from Guangxu Emperor, Tianjin University is the oldest university in China, leading the country's significant shift towards modernization and development. The university is affiliated with and funded by the Ministry of Education of China. It is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
Beijing Normal University (BNU) is a public university in Beijing, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China, and co-funded by the Ministry of Education and the Beijing Municipal People's Government. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
The Dalian University of Technology (DLUT) is a public university in Ganjinzi, Dalian, Liaoning, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
The Beijing University of Chinese Medicine is a public university in China. Founded in 1956, it is one of the first traditional Chinese medical institutions for higher learning in China. The university is affiliated with the Ministry of Education. It is part of Project 211 and the Double First-Class Construction.
Guizhou University (贵州大学) is a provincial public university located in suburban Guiyang, Guizhou, China. It is affiliated with the Province of Guizhou and is co-funded by the Guizhou Provincial People's Government and the Ministry of Education. The university is part of Project 211 and the Double First-Class Construction. Guizhou University ranking is 701-800th globally by the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU).
Project 211 was a higher education development and sponsorship scheme of the Chinese central government for preparing approximately 100 universities for the 21st century, initiated in November 1995. There were 115 universities and colleges selected to be part of this program.
Northwestern Polytechnical University is a public science and engineering university in Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
National Key Universities previously referred to universities recognized as prestigious and which received a high level of support from the central government of the People's Republic of China. The term is no longer in official use by 1990s. The term "zhòngdiǎn" 重点, translated here as "key," in this phrase can also be translated as "major," "priority," or "focal." The term "National Key Universities" then became defunct, and these schools are now normally referred to as "Double First Class Universities“, based on the China state Double First-Class Construction. However, it remains part of the vernacular, as evidenced by some Chinese media articles which still refer to "National Key Universities".
Project 985 was a higher education development and sponsorship scheme of the Chinese central government for creating world-class higher education institutions, initiated in May 1998. There were 39 universities selected to be part of this program.
The China Conservatory of Music is a municipal music academy in Chaoyang, Beijing, China. The school is affiliated with the City of Beijing, and co-funded by the Beijing Municipal People's Government and the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The school is a higher music education institution that aims at Chinese ethnic music education, research, performance, and creation. It was established in 1964 and is part of the Double First-Class Construction.
Shanghai Ocean University (SHOU) is a public research university in Shanghai, China, dedicated to the study of aquaculture, marine science and engineering. This university is a part of the national Double First-Class Construction Initiative. It is co-established by the Ministry of Natural Resources, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and the Shanghai Municipal Government.
The Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech) is a municipal public university in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China. It is owned and funded by the Shenzhen Municipal People's Government. In 2022, there were over 10,000 students enrolled. The university is part of the Double First-Class Construction.
Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) is a public university in Shanghai, China. It is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.
The World First-Class Universities and First-Class Academic Disciplines Construction (世界一流大学和一流学科建设), together known as Double First-Class Construction (双一流建设), is a higher education development and sponsorship scheme of the Chinese central government, initiated in 2015. There are 147 universities and colleges selected to be part of the program.
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