Irradiation

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Irradiation is the process by which an object is exposed to radiation. An irradiator is a device used to expose an object to radiation, notably gamma radiation, for a variety of purposes. [1] Irradiators may be used for sterilizing medical and pharmaceutical supplies, preserving foodstuffs, alteration of gemstone colors, studying radiation effects, eradicating insects through sterile male release programs, or calibrating thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs). [2]

Contents

The exposure can originate from various sources, including natural sources. Most frequently the term refers to ionizing radiation, and to a level of radiation that will serve a specific purpose, rather than radiation exposure to normal levels of background radiation. The term irradiation usually excludes the exposure to non-ionizing radiation, such as infrared, visible light, microwaves from cellular phones or electromagnetic waves emitted by radio and television receivers and power supplies.

Applications

Sterilization

If administered at appropriate levels, all forms of ionizing radiation can sterilize objects, including medical instruments, disposables such as syringes, and sterilize food. Ionizing radiation (electron beams, X-rays and gamma rays) [3] may be used to kill bacteria in food or other organic material, including blood.[ citation needed ] Food irradiation, while effective, is seldom used due to problems with public acceptance. [4]

Medicine

Irradiation is used in diagnostic imaging, cancer therapy and blood transfusion. [5]

In 2011 researchers found that irradiation was successful in the novel theranostic technique involving co-treatment with heptamethine dyes to elucidate tumor cells and attenuate their growth with minimal side effects. [6] [7]

Ion implantation

Ion irradiation is routinely used to implant impurities atoms into materials, especially semiconductors, to modify their properties. This process, usually known as ion implantation, is an important step in the manufacture of silicon integrated circuits. [8]

Ion irradiation

Ion irradiation means in general using particle accelerators to shoot energetic ions on a material. Ion implantation is a variety of ion irradiation, as is swift heavy ions irradiation from particle accelerators induces ion tracks that can be used for nanotechnology. [9] [10]

Industrial chemistry

The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry [11] and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature. [12] However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries. [12] [13]

Irradiation is used to cross-link plastics. Due to its efficiency, electron beam processing is often used in the irradiation treatment of polymer-based products to improve their mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties, and often to add unique properties. Cross-linked polyethylene pipe (PEX), high-temperature products such as tubing and gaskets, wire and cable jacket curing, curing of composite materials, and crosslinking of tires are a few examples.

Agriculture

After its discovery by Lewis Stadler at the University of Missouri, irradiation of seed and plant germplasm has resulted in creating many widely-grown cultivars of food crops worldwide. [14] The process, which consists of striking plant seeds or germplasm with radiation in the form of X-rays, UV waves, heavy-ion beams, or gamma rays, essentially induce lesions of the DNA, leading to mutations in the genome. The UN has been an active participant through the International Atomic Energy Agency. Irradiation is also employed to prevent the sprouting of certain cereals, onions, potatoes and garlic. [15] Appropriate irradiation doses are also used to produce insects for use in the sterile insect technique of pest control. [16]

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) recognizes irradiation as an important technology to protect consumers. Fresh meat and poultry including whole or cut up birds, skinless poultry, pork chops, roasts, stew meat, liver, hamburgers, ground meat, and ground poultry are approved for irradiation. [17]

Assassination

Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, who died of lung cancer in Bucharest on March 19, 1965, may have been intentionally irradiated during a visit to Moscow, due to his political stance. [18]

In 1999, an article in Der Spiegel alleged that the East German MfS intentionally irradiated political prisoners with high-dose radiation, possibly to provoke cancer. [19] [20]

Alexander Litvinenko, a secret serviceman who was tackling organized crime in Russia, was intentionally poisoned with polonium-210; the very large internal doses of radiation he received caused his death.

Nuclear industry

In the nuclear industry, irradiation may refer to the phenomenon of exposure of the structure of a nuclear reactor to neutron flux, making the material radioactive and causing irradiation embrittlement, [21] [22] or irradiation of the nuclear fuel.

Security

During the 2001 anthrax attacks, the US Postal Service irradiated mail to protect members of the US government and other possible targets. This was of some concern to people who send digital media through the mail, including artists. According to the ART in Embassies program, "incoming mail is irradiated, and the process destroys slides, transparencies and disks."[ citation needed ]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food irradiation</span> Sterilization of food with ionizing radiations for enhanced preservation and longer shelflife

Food irradiation is the process of exposing food and food packaging to ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or electron beams. Food irradiation improves food safety and extends product shelf life (preservation) by effectively destroying organisms responsible for spoilage and foodborne illness, inhibits sprouting or ripening, and is a means of controlling insects and invasive pests.

Particle radiation is the radiation of energy by means of fast-moving subatomic particles. Particle radiation is referred to as a particle beam if the particles are all moving in the same direction, similar to a light beam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiation</span> Waves or particles moving through space

In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or a material medium. This includes:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beta particle</span> Ionizing radiation

A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta radiation, is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear technology</span> Technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei

Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies are nuclear reactors, nuclear medicine and nuclear weapons. It is also used, among other things, in smoke detectors and gun sights.

Ionizing radiation, including nuclear radiation, consists of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that have sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules by detaching electrons from them. Some particles can travel up to 99% of the speed of light, and the electromagnetic waves are on the high-energy portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

The gray is the unit of ionizing radiation dose in the International System of Units (SI), defined as the absorption of one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter.

Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neutron radiation</span> Ionizing radiation that presents as free neutrons

Neutron radiation is a form of ionizing radiation that presents as free neutrons. Typical phenomena are nuclear fission or nuclear fusion causing the release of free neutrons, which then react with nuclei of other atoms to form new nuclides—which, in turn, may trigger further neutron radiation. Free neutrons are unstable, decaying into a proton, an electron, plus an electron antineutrino. Free neutrons have a mean lifetime of 887 seconds.

Absorbed dose is a dose quantity which is the measure of the energy deposited in matter by ionizing radiation per unit mass. Absorbed dose is used in the calculation of dose uptake in living tissue in both radiation protection, and radiology. It is also used to directly compare the effect of radiation on inanimate matter such as in radiation hardening.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cobalt-60</span> Radioactive isotope of cobalt

Cobalt-60 (60Co) is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half-life of 5.2714 years. It is produced artificially in nuclear reactors. Deliberate industrial production depends on neutron activation of bulk samples of the monoisotopic and mononuclidic cobalt isotope 59
Co
. Measurable quantities are also produced as a by-product of typical nuclear power plant operation and may be detected externally when leaks occur. In the latter case the incidentally produced 60
Co
 is largely the result of multiple stages of neutron activation of iron isotopes in the reactor's steel structures via the creation of its 59
Co
 precursor. The simplest case of the latter would result from the activation of 58
Fe
. 60
Co
 undergoes beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60. The activated nickel nucleus emits two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, hence the overall equation of the nuclear reaction is: 59
27Co
 + n → 60
27Co
 → 60
28Ni
 + e− + 2 γ

Radiation damage is the effect of ionizing radiation on physical objects including non-living structural materials. It can be either detrimental or beneficial for materials.

Radiobiology is a field of clinical and basic medical sciences that involves the study of the effects of ionizing radiation on living things, in particular health effects of radiation. Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.

In radiobiology, the relative biological effectiveness is the ratio of biological effectiveness of one type of ionizing radiation relative to another, given the same amount of absorbed energy. The RBE is an empirical value that varies depending on the type of ionizing radiation, the energies involved, the biological effects being considered such as cell death, and the oxygen tension of the tissues or so-called oxygen effect.

Electron-beam processing or electron irradiation (EBI) is a process that involves using electrons, usually of high energy, to treat an object for a variety of purposes. This may take place under elevated temperatures and nitrogen atmosphere. Possible uses for electron irradiation include sterilization, alteration of gemstone colors, and cross-linking of polymers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gamma ray</span> Energetic electromagnetic radiation arising from radioactive decay of atomic nuclei

A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol γ or ), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of X-rays. With frequencies above 30 exahertz (3×1019 Hz), it imparts the highest photon energy. Paul Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying radiation emitted by radium. In 1903, Ernest Rutherford named this radiation gamma rays based on their relatively strong penetration of matter; in 1900 he had already named two less penetrating types of decay radiation (discovered by Henri Becquerel) alpha rays and beta rays in ascending order of penetrating power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gemstone irradiation</span> Process to enhance a gemstones optical properties

Gemstone irradiation is a process in which a gemstone is artificially irradiated in order to enhance its optical properties. High levels of ionizing radiation can change the atomic structure of the gemstone's crystal lattice, which in turn alters the optical properties within it. As a result, the gem­stone's color may be significantly altered or the visibility of its inclusions may be lessened.

Radiation materials science is a subfield of materials science which studies the interaction of radiation with matter: a broad subject covering many forms of irradiation and of matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philippine Nuclear Research Institute</span> Agency of the Philippine government

The Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI) is a government agency under the Department of Science and Technology mandated to undertake research and development activities in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, institute regulations on the said uses, and carry out the enforcement of said regulations to protect the health and safety of radiation workers and the general public.

Phytosanitary irradiation is a treatment that uses ionizing radiation on commodities, such as fruits and vegetables to inactivate pests, such as insects. This method is used for international food trade as a means to prevent spread of non-native organisms. It is used as an alternative to conventional techniques, which includes heat treatment, cold treatment, pesticide sprays, high pressure treatment, cleaning, waxing or chemical fumigation. It is often used on spices, grains, and non-food items. It inhibits the species reproduction cycle by destroying nuclear material primarily, whereas other methods are measured by species mortality. Each country has different effective approved dosages, although most follow guidelines established by the IPPC which has issued guidelines referred to as the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM). The most commonly used dose is 400 Gy based on USDA-APHIS guidelines.

References

  1. ↑ Irradiator definition. Law Insider (accessed Jan 2023)
  2. ↑ Irradiators. United States Department of Agriculture (accessed Jan 2023)
  3. ↑ "Food Standards Agency - Irradiated food". Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
  4. ↑ "Spinach and Peanuts, With a Dash of Radiation" Archived 2017-07-06 at the Wayback Machine article by Andrew Marin in The New York Times February 1, 2009
  5. ↑ "Information for patients needing irradiated blood" Archived 2018-11-23 at the Wayback Machine by National Blood Service
  6. ↑ Tan X, Luo S, Wang D, et al. A NIR heptamethine Dye with intrinsic cancer targeting, imaging and photosynthesizing properties. Journal of Biomaterials China. 33-7 (2011), pp. 2230-2239.
  7. ↑ F. Pene, E. Courtine, A. Cariou, J.P. Mira. Toward theranostics. Crit Care Med, 37 (2009), pp. S50–S58
  8. ↑ Meldrum, A.; Haglund, R. F. Jr; Boatner, L. A.; White, C. W. (2001). "Nanocomposite Materials Formed by Ion Implantation". Advanced Materials. 13 (19): 1431–1444. doi:10.1002/1521-4095(200110)13:19<1431::AID-ADMA1431>3.0.CO;2-Z. ISSN   1521-4095.
  9. ↑ Rawat, Pankaj Singh; Srivastava, R.C.; Dixit, Gagan; Asokan, K. (December 1, 2020). "Structural, functional and magnetic ordering modifications in graphene oxide and graphite by 100 MeV gold ion irradiation". Vacuum. 182: 109700. Bibcode:2020Vacuu.182j9700R. doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2020.109700. ISSN   0042-207X. S2CID   225410221.
  10. ↑ Andrievskii, R. A. (September 1, 2010). "Effect of irradiation on the properties of nanomaterials". The Physics of Metals and Metallography. 110 (3): 229–240. Bibcode:2010PMM...110..229A. doi:10.1134/S0031918X10090061. ISSN   1555-6190. S2CID   136828233.
  11. ↑ Omi, Nelson M.; Rela, Paulo R. (2007). Gemstone Dedicated Gamma Irradiator Development: Proceedings of the INAC 2007 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference (PDF). Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear. p. 1. ISBN   978-85-99141-02-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2022. Retrieved October 21, 2022.
  12. 1 2 Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Kammerling, Robert C. (1991). Gemology (PDF). Wiley-Interscience. p. 170. ISBN   0-471-52667-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 4, 2022. Retrieved November 4, 2022– via LibreTexts.
  13. ↑ Nuclear Regulatory Commission (April 2019), Backgrounder on Irradiated Gemstones, The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, archived from the original on September 1, 2022, retrieved November 12, 2022PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government .
  14. ↑ Ahloowalia, B.S.; Maluszynski, M.; Nichterlein, K. (2004). "Global impact of mutation-derived varieties". Euphytica. 135 (2): 187–204. doi:10.1023/B:EUPH.0000014914.85465.4f. S2CID   34494057.
  15. ↑ Bly, J.H. "Electron Beam Processing", Yardley, PA: International Information Associates, 1988.
  16. ↑ International Database on Insect Disinfestation and Sterilization Archived 2010-03-28 at the Wayback Machine , Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture website, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, plus the International Atomic Energy Agency.
  17. ↑ Irradiation and Food Safety, U.S. Drug and Food Administration. Retrieved Jan. 5, 2010.
  18. ↑ "TFP > Alexander Litvinenko Assassination". Archived from the original on July 1, 2011. Retrieved October 18, 2009.
  19. ↑ STASI: In Kopfhöhe ausgerichtet. Archived 2013-11-06 at the Wayback Machine Article by Peter Wensierski in Der Spiegel 20/1999, May 17, 1999
  20. ↑ Tödliche Strahlung. Die Staatssicherheit der DDR steht im Verdacht, Regimegegner radioaktiv verseucht zu haben. Article by Paul Leonhard in Junge Freiheit April 14, 2000
  21. ↑ Materials Ageing – Irradiation Embrittlement. EU Science Hub accessed Jan 2023)
  22. ↑ Aitkaliyeva, A.; He, L.; Wen, H.; Miller, B.; Bai, X.M.; Allen, T. (2017). "Irradiation effects in Generation IV nuclear reactor materials". Structural Materials for Generation IV Nuclear Reactors. pp. 253–283. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-100906-2.00007-0. ISBN   978-0-08-100906-2. OSTI   1476305.
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