Male bonding

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Vice President Chen shares a hug with Dr. Andy Shih, Taiwan, 2017

In ethology and social science, male bonding or male friendship is the formation of close personal relationships, and patterns of friendship or cooperation between males. Male bonding is a form of homosociality, or social connection between individuals of the same gender. Male bonding can occur through various contexts and activities that build emotional closeness, trust, and camaraderie. Male bonding is an important feature of men’s social functioning and can provide benefits including emotional support and intimacy, shared identity, and personal fulfillment contributing to men’s mental health and wellbeing. [1]

Contents

Though male bonding and male friendships have been researched in contexts of anthropology, psychology, and sociology, overall male bonding remains understudied.

Characteristics

Male bonding can take various forms and may be expressed differently across cultures and individual relationships. Common characteristics of male bonding include:

Shared Activities: Men often bond through participation in common activities such as sports, or hobbies. [2] These activities provide an environment for cooperation, competition, and shared experiences, all of which can help strengthen social ties. [3]

Emotional Support: Though men’s friendships are often stereotyped as surface level and consisting of less intimacy, more recent studies have found that men today both value and engage in intimacy in their friendships more than men in previous generations. [2] [4]

Rituals and Traditions: Many male groups engage in social rituals that help cement their relationships. These can range from informal traditions like watching sports together to more formal rites of passage such as fraternity initiations. [5] Such traditions have also been criticized as promoting hegemonic masculinity. [6]

Male bonding across the lifespan

Early childhood (Ages 2-6)

In early childhood, male bonding begins primarily within the family structure. For young boys, bonding often centers around interactions with fathers, or other male relatives. These early connections help children develop trust and emotional security. [7]

There is research evidence from studies of children in school settings that preschool aged children are more likely to select same-sex playmates, rather than playmates of the other sex, when able to self-select playmates. [8] [9] [10] There is also evidence that very young boys and girls differ in emotional expressiveness in dyadic friendships. [11] Young boys often begin to seek out and enjoy time with other boys around this age, especially as they begin to recognize gender as a part of their identity. [9]

School-age children (Ages 6-12)

As children enter school, their social world expands beyond the family, and peer relationships become increasingly important. [12] Male bonding in this phase is shaped by shared interests, group activities, and a developing sense of identity. Boys begin to form more structured friendships, typically based on shared activities. [13] These early friendships lay the groundwork for later emotional and social development. Research suggests that during this phase, children often begin to segregate into same-gender groups, with boys forming strong bonds with other boys. [9]

Adolescence (Ages 12-22)

Adolescence is a period of significant social, emotional, and physical development, and peer relations become more complex and takes on new dimensions as young boys navigate the challenges of puberty and identity formation. [14] [15]

Friendship is important for adolescent mental health [16] and in early adolescence male friendships tend to become more intimate with higher value placed on self-disclosure, reciprocity, loyalty, and commitment. [17] Friendship networks at this age tend to include both same and other gender peers as interests in romantic relationships begins to emerge, though gender segregation remains prominent across dyadic friendships. [9]

In adolescence, cultural pressure for boys to conform to masculine ideals tends to increase [18] which has led many to theorize that boys have fewer intimate friendships in adolescence and adulthood. [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] Some researchers have found that in early adolescence boys often have very loving and intimate relationships with same-gender best friends, but that this intimacy wanes over time with men becoming more disconnected from their friendships in later adolescence, despite stated desires for intimacy. [24] In some studies, men in college report less instances of sharing personal information with male friends including thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and self-disclosures compared to what they shared with female friends. [25] However, more recent literature suggests that college age men tend to be less limited by traditional views of masculinity and homosocial bonding than previous generations and are more intimate and emotionally expressive in their same gender friendships. [26]

During adolescence, boys often bond through risk-taking behaviors such as experimenting with substances, engaging in rebellious acts, or pushing physical limits. This creates a shared sense of adventure and camaraderie but can also have negative consequences if the behaviors are dangerous. [27]

Young adulthood (Ages 22-30) and middle adulthood (Ages 30-60)

Relatively little research has explored male bonding and male friendships in adulthood. Young adulthood is marked by increased independence and the establishment of long-term goals, such as career ambitions, romantic relationships, and starting families. Male bonding during this stage often revolves around shared life transitions, professional development, and personal challenges.

In adulthood, more emphasis begins to be placed on social roles and responsibilities such as increased focus on career, family, and personal development which can impact the amount of time men spend bonding with friends. [28] However, strong male friendships remain vital, as they offer support in navigating the complexities of adulthood and help men maintain a sense of identity. Men’s friendship networks during this time often include work and professional contacts. [29] [28]

Older adulthood (Ages 60+)

Though much research shows friendship in old age is psychologically beneficial, [30] as with other adult age groups, there is very little research on gender differences in friendships later in life. Factors that may impact male bonding in older adults include loss of friends, health issues, and social isolation. In addition to experiencing friendship loss due to death, as men retire, their friendships may deplete due to loss of contact with friends they previously engaged with regularly in work or networking settings. [31]

Male bonding and Gender Norms

For the past several decades, the social sciences have defined hegemonic masculinity by attributes such as strength, independence, and emotional restraint. These norms have often discouraged men from forming emotionally intimate relationships or expressing vulnerability and have resulted in homohysteria. [32] [33] Men within the LGBTQ+ community often face stigma and exclusion due to non-normative gender identities and sexual orientations. [34] [35] [36] For these individuals, experiences of male bonding are influenced by experiences of marginalization, discrimination, and the complexities of navigating social identities. Gay, bisexual, and queer men may struggle to find acceptance within male spaces that emphasize homophobia or rigid masculinity, such as in sport. [37]

More recent research has shown that younger men are more likely to include gay peers in friendship groups. A new theory of masculinity, called "Inclusive masculinity theory", has emerged to capture a societal decline in homophobia in western cultures and a theorized more inclusive version of masculinity. [32]

For transgender men, the experience of male bonding is shaped by their intersectional identities as both transgender individuals and men. As they navigate gender transition and male socialization, they may face challenges in forming male bonds. [38] Transgender men may encounter exclusion from men in male-dominated spaces such as locker rooms or sports teams. [39]

Male bonding in Contemporary Western Media

Male bonding has been a common theme in Western media for many decades, often depicted in ways that reinforce traditional notions of masculinity and friendship. In recent years, popular shows like Dave (2020-) and Ted Lasso (2020-) have presented male friendships that are characterized by emotional support, vulnerability, and deeper connections beyond just shared activities. [40]

"Bromance"

The term "bromance" has emerged in recent years to describe a close, non-romantic friendship between men that involves a heightened level of emotional intimacy and affection. The bromance has gained prominence in Western media, particularly in films and television. [41] Unlike traditional representations of male friendships, which often emphasize masculine stereotypes, the bromance focuses on the positive emotional aspects of male bonding. [42]

Though initially thought of as media trope, the bromance has become a more positive and inclusive representation of male relationships that allows men to express care for each other, both verbally and physically, in ways that defy traditional masculine norms, such as hugging, openly expressing affection, or discussing emotions. [26]

"Locker Room Talk"

Locker room talk refers to the informal, often crude conversations that men engage in, typically in private settings such as locker rooms, bars, or among male peers. This style of conversation is often characterized by humor, bravado, and an emphasis on male sexuality, dominance, and sometimes, objectification of women. Locker room talk has become a cultural trope associated with toxic masculinity that reflects broader societal critiques of masculinity and male bonding. [43]

These conversations have gained more scrutiny and attention in both popular culture and the media in recent years following the 2016 U.S. presidential election, when a recording of Donald Trump casually bragging about sexually assaulting women to a television personality was leaked to the public. [44] Following the tape being leaked, Trump attempted to dismiss public concern by stating the remarks were “locker room talk.” [45] The incident sparked widespread discussions about the impact of such talk on societal attitudes toward women and the role it plays in reinforcing a culture of toxic masculinity. [46]

Recession in male friendship

The "male friendship crisis" refers to a growing concern that men, particularly in Western societies, are increasingly isolated from close, emotionally intimate friendships. The American male friendship recession has been reported on by news outlets including the New York Times, [47] PBS News, [48] Psychology Today, [49] and Vox. [50]

Surveys have shown that men are experiencing a decline in the number of meaningful friendships they maintain, with the number of men reporting having at least 6 close friends halving in 2021 compared to 1990. [51] Many men have reported feeling lonely or disconnected from others. This phenomenon is often attributed to cultural norms that encourage men to hide vulnerability and is thought to have been accelerated by societal shifts in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic such as social isolating during the pandemic and resulting increases in remote work arrangements. [52] [47]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adolescence</span> Human transition from puberty to adult

Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier or end later. Puberty typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth and cognitive development can extend past the teens. Age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have not agreed upon a precise definition. Some definitions start as early as 10 and end as late as 30. The World Health Organization definition officially designates an adolescent as someone between the ages of 10 and 19.

In social psychology, an interpersonal relation describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more persons. It overlaps significantly with the concept of social relations, which are the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences. Relations vary in degrees of intimacy, self-disclosure, duration, reciprocity, and power distribution. The main themes or trends of the interpersonal relations are: family, kinship, friendship, love, marriage, business, employment, clubs, neighborhoods, ethical values, support and solidarity. Interpersonal relations may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and form the basis of social groups and societies. They appear when people communicate or act with each other within specific social contexts, and they thrive on equitable and reciprocal compromises.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peer group</span> Primary group of people with similar interests, age, background, or social status

In sociology, a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests (homophily), age, background, or social status. Members of peer groups are likely to influence each others' beliefs and behaviour.

In sociology, homosociality means same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship, mentorship, or others. Researchers who use the concept mainly do so to explain how men uphold men's dominance in society.

Adolescent cliques are cliques that develop amongst adolescents. In the social sciences, the word "clique" is used to describe a group of 3 to 12 "who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting". Cliques are distinguished from "crowds" in that their members socially interact with one another more than the typical crowd. Crowds, on the other hand, are defined by reputation. Although the word 'clique' or 'cliquey' is often used in day-to-day conversation to describe relational aggression or snarky, gossipy behaviors of groups of socially dominant teenage girls, that is not always accurate. Interacting with cliques is part of normative social development regardless of gender, ethnicity, or popularity. Although cliques are most commonly studied during adolescence and in educational settings, they can exist in all age groups and settings.

Sex differences in psychology are differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors. Differences have been found in a variety of fields such as mental health, cognitive abilities, personality, emotion, sexuality, friendship, and tendency towards aggression. Such variation may be innate, learned, or both. Modern research attempts to distinguish between these causes and to analyze any ethical concerns raised. Since behavior is a result of interactions between nature and nurture, researchers are interested in investigating how biology and environment interact to produce such differences, although this is often not possible.

Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors. The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor. Gendered profiling might affect the reported crime rates.

Relational aggression, alternative aggression, or relational bullying is a type of aggression in which harm is caused by damaging someone's relationships or social status.

A cross-sex friendship is a platonic relationship between two unrelated people of differing sexes or gender. There are multiple types of cross-sex friendships, all defined by whether or not each party has a romantic attraction to each other, or perceives that the other is interested. A few theories have been developed to explain the existence of such friendships. Research has been done on why men and women initiate these relationships, how they are perceived by others, implications for children with cross-sex friendships, among others. Cross-sex friendships can also create problems for those involved if either or both have or ever had any romantic feelings for the other.

Childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) is a phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected gender-related sociological or psychological patterns, or identify with the opposite sex/gender. Typical behavior among those who exhibit the phenomenon includes but is not limited to a propensity to cross-dress, refusal to take part in activities conventionally thought suitable for the gender and the exclusive choice of play-mates of the opposite sex.

Adolescent sexuality is a stage of human development in which adolescents experience and explore sexual feelings. Interest in sexuality intensifies during the onset of puberty, and sexuality is often a vital aspect of teenagers' lives. Sexual interest may be expressed in a number of ways, such as flirting, kissing, masturbation, or having sex with a partner. Sexual interest among adolescents, as among adults, can vary greatly, and is influenced by cultural norms and mores, sex education, as well as comprehensive sexuality education provided, sexual orientation, and social controls such as age-of-consent laws.

Tend-and-befriend is a purported behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, in response to threat. It refers to protection of offspring (tending) and seeking out their social group for mutual defense (befriending). In evolutionary psychology, tend-and-befriend is theorized as having evolved as the typical female response to stress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friendship</span> Mutual affection between people

Friendship is a relationship of mutual affection between people. It is a stronger form of interpersonal bond than an "acquaintance" or an "association", such as a classmate, neighbor, coworker, or colleague.

The theory of co-rumination refers to extensively discussing and revisiting problems, speculating about problems, and focusing on negative feelings with peers. Although it is similar to self-disclosure in that it involves revealing and discussing a problem, it is more focused on the problems themselves and thus can be maladaptive. While self-disclosure is seen in this theory as a positive aspect found in close friendships, some types of self-disclosure can also be maladaptive. Co-rumination is a type of behavior that is positively correlated with both rumination and self-disclosure and has been linked to a history of anxiety because co-ruminating may exacerbate worries about whether problems will be resolved, about negative consequences of problems, and depressive diagnoses due to the consistent negative focus on troubling topics, instead of problem-solving. However, co-rumination is also closely associated with high-quality friendships and closeness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bromance</span> Close but non-sexual relationship between two or more men

A bromance is a very close and non-sexual relationship between two or more men. It is an exceptionally tight, affectional, homosocial male bonding relationship exceeding that of usual friendship, and is distinguished from normal friendship by a particularly high level of emotional intimacy. The emergence of the concept since the beginning of the 21st century has been seen as reflecting a change in societal perception and interest in the theme, with an increasing openness of Western society in the 21st century to reconsider exclusivity constraints. The female version of the bromance is the womance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sibling relationship</span> Relationship between siblings

Siblings play a unique role in one another's lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the influence and assistance of friends. Because siblings often grow up in the same household, they have a large amount of exposure to one another, like other members of the immediate family. However, though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements, this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations. Furthermore, sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family.

Unpopularity is the opposite of popularity. Therefore, it is the quality of lacking acceptance or approval by one's peers or society as a whole.

Gender policing is the imposition or enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, their gender or sex that was assigned to them at birth. According to Judith Butler, rejection of individuals who are non-normatively gendered is a component of creating one's own gender identity.

Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, the environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.

Social emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a gradual, integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand, experience, express, and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships with others. As such, social emotional development encompasses a large range of skills and constructs, including, but not limited to: self-awareness, joint attention, play, theory of mind, self-esteem, emotion regulation, friendships, and identity development.

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