Pyruvate dehydrogenase

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pyruvate dehydrogenase (acetyl-transferring)
PDwhole1.jpg
Crystallographic structure of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). PH is a six domain dimer with α (blue), α’ (yellow), β (red), and β’ (teal) regions denoted by the different colors. Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) is shown in grey ball and stick form, two magnesium ions in purple undergoing metal ligation with the TPP, and two potassium ions in orange. [1]
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EC no. 1.2.4.1
CAS no. 9014-20-4
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KEGG KEGG entry
MetaCyc metabolic pathway
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Pyruvate dehydrogenase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of pyruvate and a lipoamide to give the acetylated dihydrolipoamide and carbon dioxide. The conversion requires the coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate.

Contents

PyruvateDehyRxn.png

Pyruvate dehydrogenase is usually encountered as a component, referred to as E1, of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). PDC consists of other enzymes, referred to as E2 and E3. Collectively E1-E3 transform pyruvate, NAD+, coenzyme A into acetyl-CoA, CO2, and NADH. The conversion is crucial because acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration. [2] To distinguish between this enzyme and the PDC, it is systematically called pyruvate dehydrogenase (acetyl-transferring).

Mechanism

Simplified mechanism for pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction. The TPP coenzyme is shown with abbreviated substituents. PyruvDehydMech.png
Simplified mechanism for pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction. The TPP coenzyme is shown with abbreviated substituents.

The thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) converts to an ylide by deprotonation. The ylide attack the ketone group of pyruvate. The resulting adduct decarboxylates. The resulting 1,3-dipole reductively acetylates lipoamide-E2. [2]

In terms of details, biochemical and structural data for E1 revealed a mechanism of activation of TPP coenzyme by forming the conserved hydrogen bond with glutamate residue (Glu59 in human E1) and by imposing a V-conformation that brings the N4’ atom of the aminopyrimidine to intramolecular hydrogen bonding with the thiazolium C2 atom. This unique combination of contacts and conformations of TPP leads to formation of the reactive C2-carbanion, eventually. After the cofactor TPP decarboxylates pyruvate, the acetyl portion becomes a hydroxyethyl derivative covalently attached to TPP. [1]

Structure

E1 is a multimeric protein. Mammalian E1s, including human E1, are tetrameric, composed of two α- and two β- subunits. [1] Some bacterial E1s, including E1 from Escherichia coli , are composed of two similar subunits, each being as large as the sum of molecular masses of α- and β- subunits. [3]

Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 subunit of E. coli. Colors represent different chains. Structure determined by Arjunan et al. Biochemistry 2002. Created with PyMol. Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 subunit of E. coli (2000 pixels).png
Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 subunit of E. coli. Colors represent different chains. Structure determined by Arjunan et al. Biochemistry 2002. Created with PyMol.

Active site

PDActiveSite2.jpg

E1 has two catalytic sites, each providing thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) and magnesium ion as cofactors. The α- subunit binds magnesium ion and pyrophosphate fragment while the β-subunit binds pyrimidine fragment of TPP, forming together a catalytic site at the interface of subunits. [1]

The active site for pyruvate dehydrogenase (image created from PDB: 1NI4 ​) holds TPP through metal ligation to a magnesium ion (purple sphere) and through hydrogen bonding to amino acids. While over 20 amino acids can be found in the active site, amino acids Tyr 89, Arg 90, Gly 136, Val 138, Asp 167, Gly 168, Ala 169, Asn, 196, and His 263 actually participate in hydrogen bonding to hold TPP and pyruvate (not shown here) in the active site. The amino acids are shown as wires, and the TPP is in ball and stick form. The active site also aids in the transfer of the acyl on the TPP to a lipoamide waiting on E2. [1]

Regulation

Phosphorylation of E1 by pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inactivates E1 and subsequently the entire complex. PDK is inhibited by dichloroacetic acid and pyruvate, resulting in a higher quantity of active, unphosphorylated PDH. [4] Phosphorylation is reversed by pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase, which is stimulated by insulin, PEP, and AMP, but competitively inhibited by ATP, NADH, and Acetyl-CoA.

1400x1048 pdh regulation.png

Pathology

Pyruvate dehydrogenase is targeted by an autoantigen known as anti-mitochondrial antibodies (AMA), which results in progressive destruction of the small bile ducts of the liver, leading to primary biliary cirrhosis. These antibodies appear to recognize oxidized protein that has resulted from inflammatory immune responses. Some of these inflammatory responses could be related to gluten sensitivity as over 50% of the acute liver failure patients in one study exhibited a nonmitochondrial autoantibody against tissue transglutaminase. [5] Other mitochondrial autoantigens include oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex, which are antigens recognized by anti-mitochondrial antibodies.

Increased pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity can cause oncogene-induced cellular senescence, as well as promoting aging. [6] Decreased activity of mitochondrial PDH with age has been shown in the heart as well as in certain regions of the brain (the striatum and brainstem). [6]

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) deficiency is a congenital degenerative metabolic disease resulting from a mutation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) located on the X chromosome. While defects have been identified in all 3 enzymes of the complex, the E1-α subunit is predominantly the culprit. Malfunction of the citric acid cycle due to PDH deficiency deprives the body of energy and leads to an abnormal buildup of lactate. PDH deficiency is a common cause of lactic acidosis in newborns and often presents with severe lethargy, poor feeding, tachypnea, and cases of death have occurred. [7]

Examples

Human proteins that possess pyruvate dehydrogenase activity include:

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 1
Identifiers
Symbol PDHA1
Alt. symbolsPDHA
NCBI gene 5160
HGNC 8806
OMIM 300502
RefSeq NM_000284
UniProt P08559
Other data
EC number 1.2.4.1
Locus Chr. X p22.1
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Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro
pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 2
Identifiers
Symbol PDHA2
Alt. symbolsPDHAL
NCBI gene 5161
HGNC 8807
OMIM 179061
RefSeq NM_005390
UniProt P29803
Other data
EC number 1.2.4.1
Locus Chr. 4 q22-q23
Search for
Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro
pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) beta
Identifiers
Symbol PDHB
Alt. symbolsPHE1B
NCBI gene 5162
HGNC 8808
OMIM 179060
RefSeq NM_000925
UniProt P11177
Other data
EC number 1.2.4.1
Locus Chr. 3 p21.1-14.2
Search for
Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro

In bacteria, a form of pyruvate dehydrogenase (also called pyruvate oxidase, EC 1.2.2.2) exists that links the oxidation of pyruvate into acetate and carbon dioxide to the reduction of ferrocytochrome. In E. coli this enzyme is encoded by the pox B gene and the protein has a flavin cofactor. [8] This enzyme increases the efficiency of growth of E. coli under aerobic conditions. [9]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Citric acid cycle</span> Chemical reactions to release energy in cells

The citric acid cycle —also known as the Krebs cycle, Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle or the TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle)—is a series of chemical reactions to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The Krebs cycle is used by organisms that respire (as opposed to organisms that ferment) to generate energy, either by anaerobic respiration or aerobic respiration. In addition, the cycle provides precursors of certain amino acids, as well as the reducing agent NADH, that are used in numerous other reactions. Its central importance to many biochemical pathways suggests that it was one of the earliest components of metabolism. Even though it is branded as a 'cycle', it is not necessary for metabolites to follow only one specific route; at least three alternative segments of the citric acid cycle have been recognized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thiamine</span> Chemical compound

Thiamine, also known as thiamin and vitamin B1, is a vitamin, an essential micronutrient for humans and animals. It is found in food and commercially synthesized to be a dietary supplement or medication. Phosphorylated forms of thiamine are required for some metabolic reactions, including the breakdown of glucose and amino acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</span> Three-enzyme complex responsible for pyruvate decarboxylation

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is a complex of three enzymes that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by a process called pyruvate decarboxylation. Acetyl-CoA may then be used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration, and this complex links the glycolysis metabolic pathway to the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate decarboxylation is also known as the "pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction" because it also involves the oxidation of pyruvate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thiamine pyrophosphate</span> Chemical compound

Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP or ThPP), or thiamine diphosphate (ThDP), or cocarboxylase is a thiamine (vitamin B1) derivative which is produced by the enzyme thiamine diphosphokinase. Thiamine pyrophosphate is a cofactor that is present in all living systems, in which it catalyzes several biochemical reactions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mitochondrial matrix</span> Space within the inner membrane of the mitochondrion

In the mitochondrion, the matrix is the space within the inner membrane. The word "matrix" stems from the fact that this space is viscous, compared to the relatively aqueous cytoplasm. The mitochondrial matrix contains the mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, soluble enzymes, small organic molecules, nucleotide cofactors, and inorganic ions.[1] The enzymes in the matrix facilitate reactions responsible for the production of ATP, such as the citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, oxidation of pyruvate, and the beta oxidation of fatty acids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 1, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDK1 gene. It codes for an isozyme of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate decarboxylase</span> Class of enzymes

Pyruvate decarboxylase is an enzyme that catalyses the decarboxylation of pyruvic acid to acetaldehyde. It is also called 2-oxo-acid carboxylase, alpha-ketoacid carboxylase, and pyruvic decarboxylase. In anaerobic conditions, this enzyme is participates in the fermentation process that occurs in yeast, especially of the genus Saccharomyces, to produce ethanol by fermentation. It is also present in some species of fish where it permits the fish to perform ethanol fermentation when oxygen is scarce. Pyruvate decarboxylase starts this process by converting pyruvate into acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Pyruvate decarboxylase depends on cofactors thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) and magnesium. This enzyme should not be mistaken for the unrelated enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase, an oxidoreductase, that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

The branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex is a multi-subunit complex of enzymes that is found on the mitochondrial inner membrane. This enzyme complex catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of branched, short-chain alpha-ketoacids. BCKDC is a member of the mitochondrial α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex family comprising pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, key enzymes that function in the Krebs cycle.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency is a rare neurodegenerative disorder associated with abnormal mitochondrial metabolism. PDCD is a genetic disease resulting from mutations in one of the components of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC is a multi-enzyme complex that plays a vital role as a key regulatory step in the central pathways of energy metabolism in the mitochondria. The disorder shows heterogeneous characteristics in both clinical presentation and biochemical abnormality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase</span>

Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase is an enzyme component of the multienzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is responsible for the pyruvate decarboxylation step that links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. This involves the transformation of pyruvate from glycolysis into acetyl-CoA which is then used in the citric acid cycle to carry out cellular respiration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase</span> Class of enzymes

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (also known as PEP carboxylase, PEPCase, or PEPC; EC 4.1.1.31, PDB ID: 3ZGE) is an enzyme in the family of carboxy-lyases found in plants and some bacteria that catalyzes the addition of bicarbonate (HCO3−) to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form the four-carbon compound oxaloacetate and inorganic phosphate:

Oxidative decarboxylation is a decarboxylation reaction caused by oxidation. Most are accompanied by α- Ketoglutarate α- Decarboxylation caused by dehydrogenation of hydroxyl carboxylic acids such as carbonyl carboxylic acid, malic acid, isocitric acid, etc.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">E3 binding protein</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

E3 binding protein also known as pyruvate dehydrogenase protein X component, mitochondrial is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PDHX gene. The E3 binding protein is a component of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex found only in eukaryotes. Defects in this gene are a cause of pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency which results in neurological dysfunction and lactic acidosis in infancy and early childhood. This protein is also a minor antigen for antimitochondrial antibodies. These autoantibodies are present in nearly 95% of patients with primary biliary cholangitis, an autoimmune disease of the liver. In primary biliary cholangitis, activated T lymphocytes attack and destroy epithelial cells in the bile duct where this protein is abnormally distributed and overexpressed. Primary biliary cholangitis eventually leads to liver failure.

Acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) or Acetate—CoA ligase is an enzyme involved in metabolism of acetate. It is in the ligase class of enzymes, meaning that it catalyzes the formation of a new chemical bond between two large molecules.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit alpha, somatic form, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDHA1 gene.The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial matrix multienzyme complex that provides the primary link between glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle by catalyzing the irreversible conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA. The PDH complex is composed of multiple copies of 3 enzymes: E1 (PDHA1); dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (DLAT) ; and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (DLD). The E1 enzyme is a heterotetramer of 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits. The E1-alpha subunit contains the E1 active site and plays a key role in the function of the PDH complex.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PDK4</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pyruvate dehydrogenase lipoamide kinase isozyme 4, mitochondrial (PDK4) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDK4 gene. It codes for an isozyme of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">OGDH</span> Enzyme involved in Krebs cycle

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase also known as 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase E1 component, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the OGDH gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) alpha 2, also known as pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit alpha, testis-specific form, mitochondrial or PDHE1-A type II, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDHA2 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) beta</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) beta, also known as pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit beta, mitochondrial or PDHE1-B is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PDHB gene. The pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) complex is a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial multienzyme complex that catalyzes the overall conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and CO2, and provides the primary link between glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. The PDH complex is composed of multiple copies of three enzymatic components: pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1), dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase (E2) and lipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). The E1 enzyme is a heterotetramer of two alpha and two beta subunits. This gene encodes the E1 beta subunit. Mutations in this gene are associated with pyruvate dehydrogenase E1-beta deficiency.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyruvate decarboxylation</span>

Pyruvate decarboxylation or pyruvate oxidation, also known as the link reaction, Swanson Conversion, or oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, is the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 PDB: 1ni4 ​; Ciszak EM, Korotchkina LG, Dominiak PM, Sidhu S, Patel MS (June 2003). "Structural basis for flip-flop action of thiamin pyrophosphate-dependent enzymes revealed by human pyruvate dehydrogenase". J. Biol. Chem. 278 (23): 21240–6. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M300339200 . hdl: 2060/20030106063 . PMID   12651851.
  2. 1 2 J. M. Berg; J. L. Tymoczko, L. Stryer (2007). Biochemistry (6th ed.). Freeman. ISBN   978-0-7167-8724-2.
  3. ↑ Arjunan P, Nemeria N, Brunskill A, Chandrasekhar K, Sax M, Yan Y, et al. (April 2002). "Structure of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex E1 component from Escherichia coli at 1.85 A resolution". Biochemistry. 41 (16): 5213–21. doi:10.1021/bi0118557. PMID   11955070.
  4. ↑ Jaimes, R 3rd (Jul 2015). "Functional response of the isolated, perfused normoxic heart to pyruvate dehydrogenase activation by dichloroacetate and pyruvate". Pflügers Arch. 468 (1): 131–42. doi:10.1007/s00424-015-1717-1. PMC   4701640 . PMID   26142699.
  5. ↑ Leung PS, Rossaro L, Davis PA, et al. (2007). "Antimitochondrial antibodies in acute liver failure: Implications for primary biliary cirrhosis". Hepatology. 46 (5): 1436–42. doi:10.1002/hep.21828. PMC   3731127 . PMID   17657817.
  6. 1 2 Veech RL, Bradshaw PC, King MT (2017). "Ketone bodies mimic the life span extending properties of caloric restriction". IUBMB Life . 69 (5): 305–314. doi: 10.1002/iub.1627 . PMID   28371201. S2CID   19807849.
  7. ↑ Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Deficiency at eMedicine
  8. ↑ Recny MA, Hager LP (1982). "Reconstitution of native Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase from apoenzyme monomers and FAD". J. Biol. Chem. 257 (21): 12878–86. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)33597-X . PMID   6752142.
  9. ↑ Abdel-Hamid AM, Attwood MM, Guest JR (2001). "Pyruvate oxidase contributes to the aerobic growth efficiency of Escherichia coli". Microbiology. 147 (Pt 6): 1483–98. doi: 10.1099/00221287-147-6-1483 . PMID   11390679.
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