Spider mite

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Spider mites
Temporal range: Palaeogene–present
Tetranychus urticae with silk threads.jpg
Tetranychus urticae
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Trombidiformes
Superfamily: Tetranychoidea
Family: Tetranychidae
Donnadieu, 1875
Subfamilies & tribes

BryobinaeBerlese

  • Bryobini Reck
  • Hystrichonychini Pritchard & Baker
  • Petrobiini Reck

TetranychinaeBerlese

  • Tenuipalpoidini Pritchard & Baker
  • Tetranychini Reck

Spider mites are members of the Tetranychidae family, which includes about 1,200 species. [1] They are part of the subclass Acari (mites). Spider mites generally live on the undersides of leaves of plants, where they may spin protective silk webs, and can cause damage by puncturing the plant cells to feed. [2] Spider mites are known to feed on several hundred species of plants.

Contents

Description

Spider mites are less than 1 mm (0.04 in) in size and vary in color. They lay small, spherical, initially transparent eggs and many species spin silk webbing to help protect the colony from predators; they get the "spider" part of their common name from this webbing. [2]

Life cycle

Spider mites on a lemon plant Tetranychidae.jpg
Spider mites on a lemon plant

Hot, dry conditions are often associated with population build-up of spider mites. Under optimal conditions (approximately 27 °C), the two-spotted spider mite can hatch in as little as 3 days, and become sexually mature in as little as 5 days. One female can lay up to 20 eggs per day and can live for 2 to 4 weeks, laying hundreds of eggs. This accelerated reproductive rate allows spider mite populations to adapt quickly to resist pesticides, so chemical control methods can become somewhat ineffectual when the same pesticide is used over a prolonged period. [3]

Spider mites, like hymenopterans and some scale insects, are haplodiploid and therefore arrhenotochous: females are diploid and males are haploid. [4] When mated, females avoid the fecundation of some eggs to produce males. Fertilized eggs produce diploid females. Unmated, unfertilized females still lay eggs that originate exclusively haploid males.

To spread to new locations, they make use of ballooning for aerial dispersal. [5]

Video of multiple spider mites walking on a leaf

Genera

The best known member of the group is Tetranychus urticae , which has a cosmopolitan distribution, [6] and attacks a wide range of plants, including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, corn, cannabis, and strawberries. [3] Other species which can be important pests of commercial plants include Panonychus ulmi (fruit tree red spider mite) and Panonychus citri (citrus red mite).

The family is divided into these subfamilies, tribes and genera: [7]

Bryobinae Berlese
Tetranychinae Berlese

Countermeasures

Neem oil

Neem oil may provide control, when combined with a suitable surfactant and diluted with water. As with chemical control, repeated applications are required.[ citation needed ]

Predatory mites

Predatory mites of the Phytoseiidae family, including Phytoseiulus persimilis , eat adult mites, their eggs, and all developmental stages between. [3] Predatory mites can consume as many as 5 adult spider mites per day, or 20 eggs per day. [3]

Harpin Alpha Beta

In some cases, the application of Harpin Alpha Beta protein may help in the treatment and prevention of infestation by stimulating the plant's natural defenses, restoring sap sugar levels and encouraging replacement of damaged tissues. [8] This affects the spider mites' ability to down-regulate the immune response of a plant. [9]

Acaricides

Acaricides are applied to crops to control spider mites. They can be either systemic or non-systemic in nature and can be persistent by providing residual activity for over a month. Drawbacks include high potential for development of resistance in mite populations, as has been observed in previous generations of miticides, and toxicity of some miticides towards fish. Thus proper selection, precautions and application are required to minimize risks. [10] [11] [12]

Environmental conditions

Temporarily modifying environmental conditions has proven an effective method for insect pest control including spider mites. Generally dramatically decreased oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations at elevated temperatures can lead to mortality at all developmental stages. However mild CO2 enrichment has been shown to in fact increase mite reproduction. [13] One study determined a concentration of 0.4% O2 and 20% CO2 gave a LT 99 (time to 99% mortality) of 113h at 20 °C and 15.5h at 40 °C. [14] Another study reported 100% mortality of various stages of the two spotted spidermite using 60% CO2 and 20% O2 at 30 °C for 16h. [15] [ clarification needed ] Advantages would include decreased ability for resistance development compared to miticides and potential ease of application while drawbacks might include sensitivity of the plant to the conditions, feasibility of application, and human safety.

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Tetranychus urticae</i> Species of mite

Tetranychus urticae is a species of plant-feeding mite generally considered to be a pest. It is the most widely known member of the family Tetranychidae or spider mites. Its genome was fully sequenced in 2011, and was the first genome sequence from any chelicerate.

Hypoaspis is a genus of mites in the family Laelapidae.

Feltiella acarisuga is a species of predatory gall midges which will feed on various species of spider mites. It is especially common when spider mites occur in colonies. It requires a high spider mite density and high humidities to become established.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acaridae</span> Family of mites

The Acaridae are a family of mites in order Sarcoptiformes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesostigmata</span> Order of mites

Mesostigmata is an order of mites belonging to the Parasitiformes. They are by far the largest group of Parasitiformes, with over 8,000 species in 130 families. Mesostigmata includes parasitic as well as free-living and predatory forms. They can be recognized by the single pair of spiracles positioned laterally on the body.

<i>Panonychus ulmi</i> Species of mite

Panonychus ulmi, the European red mite, is a species of mite which is a major agricultural pest of fruit trees. It has a high reproductive rate, a short generation time and produces many broods in a year, all of which contribute to its pest status. It has a cosmopolitan distribution, and a very wide host range, having been found on the following plants:

The Raphignathoidea is a superfamily of the Acari (mite) order Trombidiformes, comprising 1087 species in 62 genera and 12 families.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trombidiidae</span> Family of mites

Trombidiidae, also known as red velvet mites, true velvet mites, or rain bugs, are small arachnids found in plant litter and are known for their bright red color.

<i>Raoiella indica</i> Species of mite

Raoiella indica, commonly known as the red palm mite, is a species of mite belonging to the family Tenuipalpidae. A pest of several species of palm in the Middle East and South East Asia, it is now becoming established throughout the Caribbean. The invasion of this species is the biggest mite explosion ever observed in the Americas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tenuipalpidae</span> Family of mites

Tenuipalpidae, also called flat mites or false spider mites, are a family of mites, closely related to the Tetranychidae. They are reddish and slow-moving and normally feed near the midrib or veins on the underside of leaves. Several species, among them Raoiella indica, are important crop pests. Other common species include Acaricis urigersoni and the Brevipalpus species B. phoenicis, B. californicus, B. obovatus, and B. lewisi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laelapidae</span> Family of mites

The Laelapidae are a family of mites in the order Mesostigmata. The family is also referred to in the literature as Laelaptidae, which may be the correct spelling.

Ascidae is a family of mites in the order Mesostigmata.

<i>Orius insidiosus</i> Species of true bug

Orius insidiosus, common name the insidious flower bug, is a species of minute pirate bug, a predatory insect in the order Hemiptera. They are considered beneficial, as they feed on small pest arthropods and their eggs. They are mass-reared for use in the biological control of thrips.

Neoseiulus californicus is a predatory mite that feeds on Tetranychid mites. This species was first described on lemons from California under the name Typhlodromus californicus in 1954.

<i>Bryobia</i> Genus of mites

Bryobia is a genus of mites in the spider mite family, Tetranychidae. The taxonomy of the genus is difficult. The genus has been revised several times. It is difficult to distinguish these tiny species from each other on the basis of morphological characters, and there is little agreement on which characteristics are of importance. Also, species can be variable in morphology. Over 130 species have been described, but many of the names are likely synonyms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tebufenpyrad</span> Chemical compound

Tebufenpyrad is an insecticide and acaricide widely used in greenhouses. It is a white solid chemical with a slight aromatic smell. It is soluble in water and also in organic solvents.

<i>Petrobia</i> Genus of mites

Petrobia is a genus in Tetranychidae, containing 34 described species. It includes some pest species.

Magdalena Kathrina Petronella Smith Meyer was a South African acarologist who was regarded as a world authority on plant-feeding mites of agricultural importance and was known as the "mother of red-spider mites of the world". She described more than 700 new species and 25 new genera, mostly of mites of agricultural importance. Meyer was involved in the promotion of biological control of mites using predatory mites, spiders and insects.

Mononychellus is a genus of mites belonging to the family Tetranychidae.

<i>Oligonychus pratensis</i> Species of mite

Oligonychus pratensis, the Banks grass mite, is a species of mite in the spider mite family. They are considered a pest and often infest corn and turf grasses.

References

  1. ↑ H. R. Bolland; Jean Gutierrez & Carlos H. W. Flechtmann (1997). "Introduction". World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae). Brill Publishers. pp. 1–3. ISBN   978-90-04-11087-8.
  2. 1 2 Yutaka Saito (2009). "Plant mites". Plant Mites and Sociality: Diversity and Evolution. Springer. pp. 5–38. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-99456-5_2. ISBN   978-4-431-99455-8.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Thomas R. Fasulo & H. A. Denmark (December 2009). "Twospotted spider mite". Featured Creatures. University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences . Retrieved May 20, 2011.
  4. ↑ Graham Bell (1982). "Parthenogenesis and vegetative reproduction in multicellular animals". The Masterpiece of Nature: the Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality. Croom Helm applied biology series. Cambridge University Press. pp. 160–331. ISBN   978-0-85664-753-6.
  5. ↑ Simonneau, Manon; Courtial, Cyril; Pétillon, Julien (2016). "Phenological and meteorological determinants of spider ballooning in an agricultural landscape" (PDF). Comptes Rendus Biologies. 339 (9–10): 408–416. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2016.06.007 . PMID   27527898.
  6. ↑ D. A. Raworth; D. R. Gillespie; M. Roy & H. M. A. Thistlewood (2002). "Tetranychus urticae Koch, twospotted spider mite (Acari: Tetranychidae)". In Peter G. Mason & John Theodore Huber (eds.). Biological Control Programmes in Canada, 1981–2000. CAB International. pp. 259–265. ISBN   978-0-85199-527-4.
  7. ↑ H. R. Bolland; Jean Gutierrez & Carlos H. W. Flechtmann (1997). "Key to the genera of the world". World Catalogue of the Spider Mite Family (Acari: Tetranychidae). Brill Publishers. pp. 5–11. ISBN   978-90-04-11087-8.
  8. ↑ "HALO Foliar Plant Feed - Studies". www.halo-harpin.com. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  9. ↑ "The effect of harpin protein on plant growth parameters, leaf chlorophyll, leaf colour and percentage rotten fruit of pepper plants inoculated with Botrytis cinerea (PDF Download Available)". ResearchGate. June 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
  10. ↑ Uesugi, R.; Goka, K.; Osakabe, M. H. (2002-12-01). "Genetic Basis of Resistances to Chlorfenapyr and Etoxazole in the Two-Spotted Spider Mite (Acari: Tetranychidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 95 (6): 1267–1274. doi: 10.1603/0022-0493-95.6.1267 . ISSN   0022-0493. PMID   12539841. S2CID   24716020.
  11. ↑ "Table 4. Toxicity to fish of commonly used insecticides, miticides, and nematicides". Virginia Tech. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  12. ↑ "All Miticides Are Not Created Equal". Home, Yard & Garden Pest Newsletter. University of Illinois. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
  13. ↑ Heagle, A. S.; Burns, J. C.; Fisher, D. S.; Miller, J. E. (1 August 2002). "Effects of Carbon Dioxide Enrichment on Leaf Chemistry and Reproduction by Twospotted Spider Mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) on White Clover". Environmental Entomology. 31 (4): 594–601. doi: 10.1603/0046-225X-31.4.594 .
  14. ↑ Whiting, D. C.; Van Den Heuvel, J. (1 April 1995). "Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and Temperature Effects on Mortality Responses of Diapausing Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae)". Journal of Economic Entomology. 88 (2): 331–336. doi:10.1093/jee/88.2.331.
  15. ↑ Oyamada, Koichi; Murai, Tamotsu (2013). "Effect of Fumigation of High Concentration Carbon Dioxide on Two Spotted Spider Mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) and Strawberry Runner Plant". Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology. 57 (4): 249–256. doi: 10.1303/jjaez.2013.249 .
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