Teamwork

Last updated December 03, 2024

Teamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in an effective and efficient way.^[1]^[2] Teamwork is seen within the framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work together towards a common goal.^[3]^[1]

Teams need to be able to leverage resources to be productive (i.e. playing fields or meeting spaces, scheduled times for planning, guidance from coaches or supervisors, support from the organization, etc.), and clearly defined roles within the team in order for everyone to have a clear purpose.^[5] Teamwork is present in contexts including an industrial organization (formal work teams), athletics (sports teams), a school (classmates working on a project), and the healthcare system (operating room teams). In each of these settings, the level of teamwork and interdependence can vary from low (e.g. golf, track and field), to intermediate (e.g. baseball, football), to high (e.g. basketball, soccer), depending on the amount of communication, interaction, and collaboration present between team members.

Among the requirements for effective teamwork are an adequate team size. The context is important, and team sizes can vary depending upon the objective. A team must include at least two members, and most teams range in size from two to 100. Sports teams generally have fixed sizes based upon set rules, and work teams may change in size depending upon the phase and complexity of the objective.

History

The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of "team-work" in the context of a team of draught animals as early as 1800.^[6]

Even though collaborative work among groups of individuals is very prominent today, that was not the case over half a century ago.^{[ timeframe? ]} The shift from the typical assembly line to organizational models that contained increasing amounts of teamwork first came about during World War I and World War II, in an effort^{[ by whom? ]} for countries to unite their people.^{[ citation needed ]} The movement towards teamwork was mostly due to the Hawthorne studies, a set of studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s that suggested positive aspects of teamwork in an organizational setting. After organizations recognized the value of teamwork and the positive effects it had on companies, entire fields of work shifted from the typical assembly line to the contemporary High Performance Organizational Model.^[7]^{[ need quotation to verify ]}

Effective teamwork characteristics

A team must have certain interrelated characteristics to work effectively.

Among these is strong group cohesion. There is a positive relationship between group cohesion and performance.^[8]

Communication is another vital characteristic for effective teamwork. Members must be able to effectively communicate with each other to overcome obstacles, resolve conflict, and avoid confusion. Communication increases cohesion.^[9]

Communication helps to clearly define the team's purpose so that there is a common goal. Having a common goal increases cohesion because all members are striving for the same objective and will help each other achieve their goals.^[9]

Commitment occurs when members are focused on achieving the team's common goal.

Accountability is necessary to ensure milestones are reached and that all members are participating. Holding members accountable increases commitment within team relations.^[10]

Basic team dynamics

Basic team dynamics include:^[11]

Open communication to avoid conflicts.
Effective coordination to avoid confusion and the overstepping of boundaries.
Efficient cooperation to perform the tasks in a timely manner and produce the required results, especially in the form of workload sharing.^[12]
High levels of interdependence to maintain trust, risk-taking, and performance.

These teamwork conditions lead to the team turning in a finished product. To measure if the teamwork was effective, the organization must examine the quality of the output, the process, and the members' experience. The teamwork can be deemed efficient if the output met or exceeded the organization's standard, the process the team chose to take helped them reach their goals, and the members report high levels of satisfaction with the team members as well as the processes that the team followed.^{[ citation needed ]}

Processes

Teams perform various processes during different periods of time. The processes can be performed when the team is undertaking specific activities, when the team is changing from one activity to the next, and during both periods of change and action when addressing relationships between the team members.^[13] Teamwork processes fall into three categories:^[14]^[13]

Transition processes

These processes occur between periods of action. Team members can evaluate their overall performance as a team and on an individual level, give feedback to each other, make clarifications about the upcoming tasks, and make any changes that would improve the process of collaborating.^{[ clarification needed ]}

Task Analysis
Goal Specification
Strategy Formulation
Result oriented group

Action processes

These processes take place when the team takes steps to accomplish its goals and objectives. Team members keep each other informed about their progress and their responsibilities, while helping one another with tasks. Feedback and collaborative work continues in high levels throughout this process.^{[ clarification needed ]}

Monitoring progress toward goals
Systems Monitoring
Team Monitoring and Backup Behavior
Coordination

Interpersonal processes

These processes are present in both action periods and transition periods, and occur between team members. This is a continuous process, in which team members communicate thoughts and/or feelings concerning either another team member or a manner in which a task is being performed. Furthermore, team members encourage and support each other on their individual tasks.^{[ clarification needed ]}

Conflict management
Motivation and Confidence building
Affect Management

Teamwork performance generally improves when a team passes through these processes, since processes like these enhance coordination and communication between the team members and therefore increase teamwork and collaborative work.^[15]

Training to improve teamwork

Teamwork and performance can be enhanced through specific training that targets individual team members and the team as a whole.^[2] Bruce Tuckman proposed a team developmental model that separated the stages of a team's lifespan and the level of teamwork for each stage:^[16]

Forming
- This stage is described by approach/avoidance issues, as well as internal conflicts about being independent vs. wanting to be a part of the team.
- Team members usually tend to 'play it safe' and minimize their risk-taking in case something goes wrong.
- Teamwork in this stage is at its lowest levels.
Storming
- The second stage is characterized by a competition for power and authority, which is the source of most of the conflicts and doubts about the success of the team.
- If teamwork is low in this stage, it is very unlikely that the team will get past their conflicts. If there is a high degree of teamwork and willingness to collaborate, then the team might have a brighter future.
Norming
- The third stage is characterized by increasing levels of solidarity, interdependence, and cohesiveness, while simultaneously making an effort to adjust to the team environment.
- This stage shows much higher levels of teamwork that make it easier for the above characteristics to occur.
Performing
- This final stage of team development includes a comfortable environment in which team members are effectively completing tasks in an interdependent and cohesive manner.
- This stage is characterized by the highest levels of comfort, success, interdependence, and maturity, and therefore includes the highest levels of teamwork.

Enhancing teamwork

One way organizational psychologists measure teamwork is through the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA) Teamwork Test.^[17] This test was developed by Michael Stevens and Michael Campion in 1994. It assesses people who want to join a team by measuring 14 KSA requirements for teamwork, especially within formal teams. The test has two main categories: Interpersonal KSAs that contain items such as Conflict Resolution and Communication, and Self-Management KSAs that include items such as Goal Setting and Task Coordination.

Teamwork can be enhanced through team development interventions (TDIs) such as leadership training, team training, team debriefing, and team building.^[18] These TDIs improve communication, coordination, cooperation, and conflict management within teams.^[19] Promoting a sense of community among the team members through efforts such as group events also contributes to the enhancement of teamwork.^[20]

Leadership and teamwork

Leaders should establish trust with their teams and provide mutual encouragement to support the success of teams.^[21] Leaders can model collaborative behavior to demonstrate effective teamwork to their teams. Team leaders should be both task- and relationship-oriented to facilitate relationships that enhance teamwork.^[20] Leaders should ensure that the team member identify and understand their roles and responsibilities within the team.^[21] A successful team aligns it objectives with the organization’s vision and goals. Leaders are responsible for inspiring and motivating teams to facilitate the alignment of their objectives with those of the organization.^[22]

Drawbacks and benefits

Utilizing teamwork is sometimes unnecessary and can lead to teams not reaching their performance peak. Some of those disadvantages include:^[23]^[24]

Social loafing : This phenomenon appears when a person working in a group puts in less effort than they can towards a task. If other members of the team are exerting comparatively more effort, this can create conflict and lead to lower levels of performance.
Behavioral conflicts or ingrained individualism: Employees at higher organizational levels have adapted to positions that require more individual initiative, and therefore have trouble engaging in collaborative work. This creates a more competitive environment with less communication and more conflict. This disadvantage is mostly seen in organizations that utilize teamwork in an extremely hierarchical environment.
Individual tasks: Certain tasks do not require teamwork, and are more appropriate for individual work. By assigning a team to complete an 'individual task', there can be high levels of conflict between members which can damage the team's dynamic and weaken their overall performance.
Groupthink : This is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when, from a desire for conflict-avoidance, the desire for cohesiveness is greater than the desire for the best decisions. When a team experiences groupthink, alternative solutions will not be suggested due to fear of rejection or disagreement within the group. Group members will measure success based on the harmony of their group and not by the outcome of their decisions. One way to counteract groupthink is to have members of a group be from diverse backgrounds and have different characteristics (gender, age, nationality). Another way to avoid groupthink is to require each member to suggest different ideas.

Working in teams has also shown to be very beneficial. Some advantages of teamwork include:^[23]^[24]

Problem solving : A group of people can bring together various perspectives and combine views and opinions to rapidly and effectively solve an issue. Due to the team's culture, each team member has a responsibility to contribute equally and offer their unique perspective on a problem to arrive at the best possible solution.^[25] Teamwork can lead to better decisions, products, or services. The effectiveness of teamwork depends on the following six components of collaboration among team members: communication, coordination, balance of member contributions, mutual support, effort, and cohesion.^[26]
Healthy competition: This can motivate people and help the team excel.^{[ citation needed ]}
Relationship development : A team that continues to work together will eventually develop an increased level of bonding. This can help members avoid unnecessary conflicts since they have become well acquainted with each other through teamwork.^[25] By building strong relationships between members, team members' satisfaction with their team increases, therefore improving both teamwork and performance.^[13]
Individual qualities : Every team member can offer their unique knowledge and ability to help improve other team members. Through teamwork the sharing of these qualities allows team members to be more productive in the future.^[12]
Motivation : Working collaboratively can lead to increased motivation levels within a team due to increasing accountability for individual performance. When groups are being compared, members tend to become more ambitious to perform better. Providing groups with a comparison standard increases their performance level thus encouraging members to work collaboratively.

Paulus describes additional benefits of teamwork:^[27]

shared workload
opportunity to achieve leadership and social satisfaction
sense of belonging to a successful team
ability to accomplish more than if team members worked individually

Related Research Articles

Virtual management is the supervision, leadership, and maintenance of virtual teams—dispersed work groups that rarely meet face to face. As the number of virtual teams has grown, facilitated by the Internet, globalization, outsourcing, and remote work, the need to manage them has also grown. The challenging task of managing these teams have been made much easier by availability of online collaboration tools, adaptive project management software, efficient time tracking programs and other related systems and tools. This article provides information concerning some of the important management factors involved with virtual teams, and the life cycle of managing a virtual team.

A team is a group of individuals working together to achieve their goal.

Group dynamics is a system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group, or between social groups. The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. These applications of the field are studied in psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, epidemiology, education, social work, leadership studies, business and managerial studies, as well as communication studies.

Team building is a collective term for various types of activities used to enhance social relations and define roles within teams, often involving collaborative tasks. It is distinct from team training, which is designed by a combination of business managers, learning and development/OD and an HR Business Partner to improve the efficiency, rather than interpersonal relations.

Senior management, executive management, or upper management is an occupation at the highest level of management of an organization, performed by individuals who have the day-to-day tasks of managing the organization, sometimes a company or a corporation.

Team management is the ability of an individual or an organization to administer and coordinate a group of individuals to perform a task. Team management involves teamwork, communication, objective setting and performance appraisals. Moreover, team management is the capability to identify problems and resolve conflicts within a team. Teams are a popular approach to many business challenges. They can produce innovative solutions to complex problems. There are various methods and leadership styles a team manager can take to increase personnel productivity and build an effective team. In the workplace teams can come in many shapes and sizes who all work together and depend on one another. They communicate and all strive to accomplish a specific goal. Management teams are a type of team that performs duties such as managing and advising other employees and teams that work with them. Whereas work, parallel, and project teams hold the responsibility of direct accomplishment of a goal, management teams are responsible for providing general direction and assistance to those teams.

A virtual team usually refers to a group of individuals who work together from different geographic locations and rely on communication technology such as email, instant messaging, and video or voice conferencing services in order to collaborate. The term can also refer to groups or teams that work together asynchronously or across organizational levels. Powell, Piccoli and Ives (2004) define virtual teams as "groups of geographically, organizationally and/or time dispersed workers brought together by information and telecommunication technologies to accomplish one or more organizational tasks." As documented by Gibson (2020), virtual teams grew in importance and number during 2000-2020, particularly in light of the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic which forced many workers to collaborate remotely with each other as they worked from home.

Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to cooperative learning than merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring positive interdependence." Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively can capitalize on one another's resources and skills. Furthermore, the teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning. Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995) describe successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher-order thinking tasks. Cooperative learning has also been linked to increased levels of student satisfaction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Workforce productivity</span> Concept in economics

Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a group of workers produce in a given amount of time. It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure. Workforce productivity, often referred to as labor productivity, is a measure for an organisation or company, a process, an industry, or a country.

In business management, an autonomous work group is a group encouraged to manage its own work and working practices.

Group emotion refers to the moods, emotions and dispositional affects of a group of people. It can be seen as either an emotional entity influencing individual members' emotional states or the sum of the individuals' emotional states.

Group cohesiveness, also called group cohesion, social harmony or social cohesion, is the degree or strength of bonds linking members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole. Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main components: social relations, task relations, perceived unity, and emotions. Members of strongly cohesive groups are more inclined to participate readily and to stay with the group.

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Cohesiveness, or the desire for cohesiveness, in a group may produce a tendency among its members to agree at all costs. This causes the group to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation.

Multiteam systems (MTSs) are "two or more teams that interface directly and interdependently in response to environmental contingencies toward the accomplishment of collective goals. MTS boundaries are defined by virtue of the fact that all teams within the system, while pursuing different proximal goals, share at least one common distal goal; and in doing so, exhibit input, process and outcome interdependence with at least one other team in the system". Multiteam systems describe collections of teams that work toward a common goal. MTSs are often conceptualized as larger than a single team, but smaller than the organization within which they are embedded. In fact, MTSs often traverse organizations such that teams embedded within the same MTS may hail from multiple organizations. These systems of teams can be conceptualized as a special type of social network. In particular, MTSs are social networks whose boundaries are based on the shared interdependence of all members toward the accomplishment of a higher-order network-level goal. Multiteam systems are different from teams, because they are composed of multiple teams that must coordinate and collaborate. In MTSs, component teams each pursue proximal team goals and at the same time, work toward the larger system level goal. Because of this dual focus on team goals and systems goals, there are many situations where interventions aimed at improving the internal cohesion of teams will come at a cost to the larger goal. The past decade has witnessed an explosion of interest in the social sciences in understanding multiteam systems. MTSs are thought to explain the dynamics that arise in the public sector such as Provincial Reconstruction Teams, and in the private sector with strategic alliances.

Team composition refers to the overall mix of characteristics among people in a team, which is a unit of two or more individuals who interact interdependently to achieve a common objective. It is based on the attributes among individuals that comprise the team, in addition to their main objective.

Positive interdependence is an element of cooperative and collaborative learning where members of a group who share common goals perceive that working together is individually and collectively beneficial, and success depends on the participation of all the members.

Selection, training, cohesion and psychosocial adaptation influence performance and, as such, are relevant factors to consider while preparing for costly, long-duration spaceflight missions in which the performance objectives will be demanding, endurance will be tested and success will be critical.

Psychological safety is the belief that one will not be punished or humiliated for speaking up with ideas, questions, concerns, or mistakes. In teams, it refers to team members believing that they can take risks without being shamed by other team members. In psychologically safe teams, team members feel accepted and respected contributing to a better "experience in the workplace". It is also the most studied enabling condition in group dynamics and team learning research.

Team effectiveness is the capacity a team has to accomplish the goals or objectives administered by an authorized personnel or the organization. A team is a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, share responsibility for outcomes, and view themselves as a unit embedded in an institutional or organizational system which operates within the established boundaries of that system. Teams and groups have established a synonymous relationship within the confines of processes and research relating to their effectiveness while still maintaining their independence as two separate units, as groups and their members are independent of each other's role, skill, knowledge or purpose versus teams and their members, who are interdependent upon each other's role, skill, knowledge and purpose.

Team diversity refers to the differences between individual members of a team that can exist on various dimensions like age, nationality, religious background, functional background or task skills, sexual orientation, and political preferences, among others. Different types of diversity include demographic, personality and functional diversity, and can have positive as well as negative effects on team outcomes. Diversity can impact performance, team member satisfaction or the innovative capacity of a team. According to the Input-Process-Output Model, team diversity is considered an input factor that has effects on the processes as well as on the team outputs of team work.

References

1 2 Montebello, Anthony R.; Buzzotta, Victor R. (March 1993). "Work Teams That Work". Training & Development. 47 (3). Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.
1 2 Salas, Eduardo; Cooke, Nancy J.; Rosen, Michael A. (2008). "On Teams, Teamwork, as well as Team Performance: Discoveries and Developments". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 50 (3): 540–547. doi:10.1518/001872008X288457. PMID 18689065. S2CID 17017793.
↑ Parker, Glenn (2008). Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Collaboration . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–68. ISBN 978-0-787-99811-0.
↑ Thompson, Leigh (2011). Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-014363-1.
↑
- Chang, Artemis; Bordia, Prashanti; Duck, Julie (2003). "Punctuated Equilibrium and Linear Progression: Toward a New Understanding of Group Development". Academy of Management Journal. 46 (1): 106–117. JSTOR 30040680.
- Gersick, Connie (1991). "Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm". Academy of Management Review. 16: 10–16. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278988. S2CID 13960681.
- West, Michael (2012). Effective Teamwork: Practical Lessons from Organizational Research. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-97498-8.
- Woods, Stephen; West, Michael (2014). The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Andover: Cengage Learning EMEA. ISBN 9781408072455.
↑ "teamwork" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.) – "How is the ploughing, the drawing, and all kind of team-work to be performed without horses?"
↑ Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). "Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981.
↑ Evans, Charles R.; Dion, Kenneth L. (2012). "Group Cohesion and Performance: A Meta-Analysis". Small Group Research. 43 (6): 690–701. doi:10.1177/1046496412468074. ISSN 1046-4964.
1 2 Troth, Ashlea C.; Jordan, Peter J.; Lawrence, Sandra A. (2012). "Emotional Intelligence, Communication Competence, and Student Perceptions of Team Social Cohesion". Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 30 (4): 414–424. doi:10.1177/0734282912449447. hdl: 10072/48513 . ISSN 0734-2829.
↑ Stewart, Virginia R.; Snyder, Deirdre G.; Kou, Chia-Yu (2023). "We Hold Ourselves Accountable: A Relational View of Team Accountability". Journal of Business Ethics. 183 (3): 691–712. doi:10.1007/s10551-021-04969-z. ISSN 0167-4544. PMC 8600914 . PMID 34812211.
↑ Hackman, Richard (1990). Groups That Work (and Those That Don't): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork . Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–13, 479–504]. ISBN 978-1555421878.
1 2 Ilgen, Daniel; Hollenbeck, John (October 5, 2004). "Teams in Organizations: From Input-Process-Output Models to IMOI Models". Annual Review of Psychology. 56: 517–543. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250. PMID 15709945. S2CID 15290229.
1 2 3 LePine, Jeffery A.; Piccolo, Ronald F.; Jackson, Christine L.; Mathieu, John E.; Saul, Jessica R. (2008). "A Meta-Analysis of Teamwork Processes: Tests of a Multidimensional Model and Relationships with Team Effectiveness Criteria". Personnel Psychology. 61 (2): 273–307. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.468.6198 . doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00114.x. ISSN 0031-5826.
↑ Marks, Michelle A.; Mathieu, John E.; Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2001). "A Temporally Based Framework and Taxonomy of Team Processes". Academy of Management Review. 26 (3): 356–376. doi:10.2307/259182. JSTOR 259182.
↑ Cattani, G.; Ferriani, S.; Mariani, M.; Mengoli, S. (2013). "Tackling the 'Galácticos' Effect: Team Familiarity and the Performance of Star-Studded Projects" . Industrial and Corporate Change. 22 (6): 1629–62. doi:10.1093/icc/dtt001.
↑
- Tuckman, Bruce (1965). "Developmental Sequence in Small Groups". Psychological Bulletin. 63 (6): 384–399. doi:10.1037/h0022100. PMID 14314073. S2CID 10356275.
- Neusch, Donna; Siebenaler, Alan (1998). The High Performance Enterprise: Reinventing the People Side of Your Business . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–177. ISBN 978-0939246298.
↑ Stevens, Michael; Campion, Michael (1994). "The Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Requirements for Teamwork: Implications of Human Resource Management". Journal of Management. 20 (2): 503–530. doi:10.1177/014920639402000210. S2CID 220584820.
↑ Lacerenza, Christina N.; Marlow, Shannon L.; Tannenbaum, Scott I.; Salas, Eduardo (2018). "Team development interventions: Evidence-based approaches for improving teamwork". American Psychologist. 73 (4): 517–531. doi: 10.1037/amp0000295 . ISSN 1935-990X. PMID 29792465.
↑ Salas, Eduardo; Shuffler, Marissa L.; Thayer, Amanda L.; Bedwell, Wendy L.; Lazzara, Elizabeth H. (2015). "Understanding and Improving Teamwork in Organizations: A Scientifically Based Practical Guide". Human Resource Management. 54 (4): 599–622. doi:10.1002/hrm.21628. ISSN 0090-4848.
1 2 Gratton, Lynda; Erickson, Tamara J (2007-11-01). "8 ways to build collaborative teams". Harvard Business Review. 85 (11): 100–9, 153. ISSN 0017-8012. PMID 18159790.
1 2 Sohmen, Victor (2015). "Leadership and Teamwork: Two Sides of the Same Coin". Journal of IT and Economic Development. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4241.7766.
↑ Wee, Kian-Ping; Wee, Hui-Min; Huang, Wen Chang (2006). "Organizational leadership and its relative influences". Journal of Information and Optimization Sciences. 27 (1): 241–248. doi:10.1080/02522667.2006.10699689. ISSN 0252-2667.
1 2 Osbrun, Jack; Moran, Linda; Musselwhite, Ed (1990). Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge . Homewood, IL: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1–26. ISBN 978-1556233418.
1 2 Katzenbach, Jon; Smith, Douglas (2015). The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization. Harvard Business School Press. pp. 1–26.
1 2 Chin, Roger (2015). "Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management". Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199–216. doi:10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037.
↑ Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). "Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981.
↑ Paulus, P. (2000). "Groups, teams, and creativity: the creative potential of idea-generating groups". Applied Psychology. 49 (2): 237–262. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00013.