Teli ka Mandir

Last updated
Teli Temple
Teli Ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort.JPG
Front view of the temple
Religion
Affiliation Hinduism
District Gwalior
Deity Shiva, Vishnu, others
Location
LocationGwalior Fort
State Madhya Pradesh
Country India
India relief location map.jpg
Om symbol.svg
Shown within India
India Madhya Pradesh relief map.svg
Om symbol.svg
Teli ka Mandir (Madhya Pradesh)
Geographic coordinates 26°13′15.2″N78°09′53.6″E / 26.220889°N 78.164889°E / 26.220889; 78.164889
Architecture
Style Nagara
Completed8th or 9th-century [1] [2]

Teli Temple, also known as Teli ka Temple, is a Hindu temple located within the Gwalior Fort in Madhya Pradesh, India. Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Matrikas, it has been variously dated between the early 8th and early 9th century CE. [1] [2]

Contents

It is an atypical design for a Hindu temple, [1] as it has a rectangular sanctum instead of the typical square. It integrates the architectural elements of the Nagara style and the Valabhi prasada. The temple is based on a Gurjara Pratihara-Gopagiri style North Indian architecture. [3] [4] [5]

The temple is a classic example of a design based on "musical harmonics" in architecture, [6] one that Hermann Goetz called as a masterpiece of late Gupta era Indian art. [7]

Location

The temple is located inside the fort of Gwalior, north Madhya Pradesh. The city is connected by major highways NH 44 and 46 (Asian Highway 43 and 47), a railway station and airport (IATA: GWL). It is located near other historic Hindu and Jain temples from the medieval era, as well the major group of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shakism temples such as the Bateshwar Temples near Morena with dozens of standing temples and the ruins of over 100 small pancharatha-style temples, [8] the Naresar group with 22 temples, [9] and the Mahua group of temples most of which are dated to between the 6th and 10th century. They exemplify various variations in the Nagara style of Hindu architecture as well as the application of vastu mandala symmetry principles in novel ways. [10] [11]

The Telika Mandir is one of the historic temples within the Gwalior old city. It is in the middle of the old town, built on a high point which makes it stand out from different locations within the fort. [12] [2] [13] The site of the Teli ka Mandir and other historic temples is found in early inscriptions. Some of these refer to the town as Gopagiri. [14]

History

The Telika Mandir is generally dated to between 8th and 9th century based on paleography, art-style, architectural design and small inscriptions found within the temple premises. [1] [2] According to Michael Meister, an art historian and a professor specializing in Indian temple architecture, the temple was built by 750 CE, per the most recently discovered inscriptions in Gwalior. [3] [15] George Michell, another art historian and a professor specializing in Indian temples, the temple was complete by the 9th century. [1] Bharne and Krusche place the temple between 700 and 750 CE, [5] while Allen places it in the 8th century. [2] According to Allen, some local literature states it to be from the 11th century, but the evidence suggests that this late chronology is inaccurate. [2] According to Bajpai, the temple may have been built during the reign of the Gurjara-Pratihara Mihira Bhoja. [16]

8th or 9th century ruined Teli ka Mandir before restoration, Gwalior Madhya Pradesh, east view 1869.jpg
Teli ka Mandir before restoration (1869)
8th or 9th century ruined Teli ka Mandir under restoration in Gwalior fort, Madhya Pradesh, 1882 photo.jpg
During restoration (1882)
8th or 9th century ruined Teli ka Mandir partly restored in 1885, Gwalior fort, Madhya Pradesh.jpg
Restored (1885), sculpture garden added.

The temple shows signs of extensive damage and change. [2] It was badly damaged in the plunder raids by Muslim army of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and his successor Iltutmish in 1232 CE along with other temples in the fort following a jauhar, parts of the ruins were then used to apparently build a mosque nearby. The mosque was in turn apparently destroyed by Hindu Maratha army centuries later. [17] The temple was restored by the Hindus after the desecration by Iltutmish forces, which speculated Cunningham, may explain some of the features that appear from a later era. [12] The temple has icons and inscriptions related to all three major traditions of Hinduism: Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism. One of the inscriptions, for example, is a metrical hymn about Durga. [14] The relief work includes a prominent Garuda, the vahana of Vishnu. Inside the temple is a Shiva linga. [12]

The temple was in ruins in the 19th century. Between 1881 and 1883, repairs to the temple were initiated by Major Keith, an officer of the Royal Scots Regiment stationed in Gwalior. [18] [19]

Nomenclature

The origin of the temple's name is unclear. It literally means Oilman's Temple, but neither the inscriptions nor texts attest to such a name. According to Allen, there is no satisfactory explanation for this name. [2] Local folklore states that the temple was built by oil merchant caste rather than kings, the royal class or the priestly class. [20]

Description

Teli ka mandir ground plan (incomplete). 8th or 9th century Teli ka mandir Gwalior Hindu temple Madhya Pradesh India.jpg
Teli ka mandir ground plan (incomplete).

The temple has a rectangular triratha sanctum plan that sits on a jagati platform that is a square of 60 feet (18 m). It has a large kapili projecting portico of about 11 feet (3.4 m) towards the east. The tower rises about the rectangular sanctum to a height of 80 feet (24 m). Above it is a barrel vault shaped cap of 30 feet (9.1 m), its length perpendicular to that of the sanctum, that reminds one of South Indian gopuram. [12] It likely had amalaka, kalasha and other ornaments on top, but these are all lost to history. The walls of temple has numerous niches for statues, but it is all empty now and show signs of damage. [2] [7] The niches are topped by tall pediments. [22] [23] The outer dimensions of the sanctum are 60x40 feet with an 80 feet tower above. [2]

The doorway into the temple is 35 feet (11 m) high, and it is ornate. Above the doorway is a relief of Garuda, the vahana of Vishnu. Inside, there is another doorway above which is a Ganesha relief. [24] There is a Nandi and lingam inside in the sanctum. The temple entrance and panels have several inscriptions, three of which are short likely from pre-10th century and others are longer from 15th-century. The latter inscriptions suggest that the temple was a Shaiva shrine by the 15th century. [12] [7] One of the inscriptions discovered is a metrical hymn about Durga, which suggests a Shakta tradition influence. [14] The temple lacks a covered mandapa, but includes a circumambulatory path. This path has four entrances, one from each cardinal direction which a devotee can use to enter the temple for a darshana . [2]

The temple is approached through a flight of stairs leading to a banded doorway containing sculptures of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna with their waists leaning towards the center, each with a boy and a girl on the lower part. Above them are amorous couples in various stages of courtship and intimacy (mithuna). There are male and female dvarapalas along the outer and inner doorways, both genders carrying weapons and a kind expression of welcome, and possibly symbolizing the theology in Shaiva and Shakta traditions. [16] [7] Above the river goddess flanked eastern doorway are piled up chaitya-hall style gavaksha ornamentation, which reminds one of the Buddhist designs. The doorway leads to the sanctum sanctorum or garbha griha. [20] There is a decorative sculpture of Garuda at the entrance to the temple. [25]

The temple's vallabhi shikhara mirrors the gopuram of Dravidian temples and it stands on a Nagara base. [26] The temple's outer walls have been extensively carved.

Analysis and reception

Teli ka Mandir (15699755834).jpg
Side view of the Teli ka Mandir.
Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg
Vardhana-period sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort. [27]
Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg
One of the four entrances to the temple with defaced sculpture.
Gate of Teki Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg
Gate of Teli ka Mandir.

The Teli ka mandir is unusual in many ways, and its complex design has led to many contesting proposals for what influenced it or which temples it influenced. Proposals range from it being influenced by Buddhist architecture, [2] or by South Indian temples, or it being an independent masterpiece innovation of the late Gupta era Hindu artists. [7]

The temple sanctum plan seems rectangular rather than the typical square, one that makes it the oldest surviving Hindu temple with a rectangular plan in Central India. According to Michael Meister, a professor specializing on Indian temple architecture, the temple is actually a study in squares nevertheless because its rectangles are formed by combining squares. [28] The extensive damage and dislocation of its ruins before the 20th-century has led to misidentification and misclassification of the temple. According to Meister, and Hermann Goetz, the temple was broadly assumed in the colonial era to have been a Vishnu temple that was later converted into Shiva temple, the temple may have actually started as a temple dedicated to the Matrikas (mother goddesses), but one that included the motifs of Vaishnanism and Shaivism. [28] [7] The evidence for these are now in the ruins held by the Gwalior Museum and Delhi National Museum. Similarly, the assumed "southern influence" is likely an incorrect hypothesis as well, proposed by those who saw something similar in the South Indian majestic gopuram or the vaulted roofs at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu. [28] However, the influence could have been the other way around or possibly the result of collaboration between pan-Indian artist guilds. Post-colonial era studies have identified similar ruined barrel-vault capped historic temples in many places in north and east India, including those in Odisha. Closer study of the keel vault details suggest that the ideas are markedly different expressions of an idea, rather than a copy. [28] [7]

The Teli ka temple of Gwalior is closest in its plan to a 4x4 square grid, yet different. According to Michael Meister this innovation is carried across the temple deliberately in its Bhadra, Pratibhadra, Karna, Kapota, Kumbha, Bhitta and other elements, [6]

The Teli-ka-mandir enlarges such a grid by increasing the sanctum, not the entire structure, by 50 percent (from 4x4 to 4x6 squares, a ratio of 2: 3), thus enlarging the outer dimensions from 8x8 to 8x10 squares (a ratio of 4:5). The ratio of the thickness of wall to sanctum is 1:2 on the temple's shorter sides, 1:3 on the longer wall. Ratios that emerge from this analysis of the Teli-ka-mandir's plan thus include 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3, and 3:5 as well as 2:5 and 4:5. These simple ratios governing the plan and created by the grid might be compared to harmonic ratios. I know of no evidence to suggest a deep commitment in India to "musical" harmonies in architecture; yet few structures better embody harmonious proportions than the eighth-century Teli-ka-mandir. [6]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hindu temple architecture</span>

Hindu temple architecture as the main form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. For rituals and prayers, this chamber frequently has an open space that can be moved in a clockwise direction. There are frequently additional buildings and structures in the vicinity of this chamber, with the largest ones covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an circumambulatory passage for parikrama, a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa. In addition to other small temples in the compound, there may be additional mandapas or buildings that are either connected or separate from the larger temples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chennakeshava Temple, Somanathapura</span> 13th-century Hindu temple in Karnataka, India

The Chennakesava Temple, also referred to as Chennakeshava Temple and Keshava Temple, is a Vaishnava Hindu temple on the banks of River Kaveri at Somanathapura, Mysuru, Karnataka, India.The temple was consecrated in 1258 CE by Somanatha Dandanayaka, a general of the Hoysala King Narasimha III. It is located 38 kilometres (24 mi) east of Mysuru city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram</span> An 8th-century Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India

The Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram, also referred to as the Kailasanatha temple, is a Pallava-era historic Hindu temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Dedicated to Shiva, it is one of the oldest surviving monuments in Kanchipuram. It reflects a Dravidian architecture and was built about 700 CE by Narasimhavarman II with additions by Mahendravarman III. A square-plan temple, it has a mukha-mandapa, a maha-mandapa and a primary garbha-griya (sanctum) topped with a four-storey vimana. The main sanctum is surrounded by nine shrines, seven outside and two inside flanking the entrance of the sanctum, all with forms of Shiva. The outer walls of the temple's prakara (courtyard) is also surrounded by cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gwalior Fort</span> Fort in Madhya Pradesh, India

The Fort of Gwalior or the Gwalior Fort, also known as the Gibraltar of India, is a Defence hill fort in Gwalior, India. Mughal Emperor Babur gave it the title "pearl amongst the fortresses of Hind" because of its impregnability and magnificence. The fort has existed at least since the 8th century, and the inscriptions and monuments found within what is now the fort campus indicate that it may have existed as early as the beginning of the 6th century. The modern-day fort, embodying a defensive structure and two palaces was built by the Tomar Rajput ruler Man Singh Tomar. The fort has been administered by a number of different rulers in its history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chennakeshava Temple, Belur</span> 12th-century Vishnu temple complex in Belur, Karnataka (Hoysala Empire era)

Chennakeshava Temple, also referred to as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu temple in, Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over three generations and took 103 years to finish. It was repeatedly damaged and plundered during wars, repeatedly rebuilt and repaired over its history. It is 35 km from Hassan city and about 220 km from Bengaluru.

Jageshwar is a Hindu pilgrimage town near Almora in Almora district of the Himalayan Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is one of the Dhams in the Shaivism tradition. The site is protected under Indian laws, and managed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). It includes Dandeshwar Temple, Chandi-ka-Temple, Jageshwar Temple, Kuber Temple, Mritunjaya Temple, Nanda Devi or Nau Durga, Nava-grah temple, a Pyramidal shrine, and Surya Temple. The site celebrates the Jageshwar Monsoon Festival during the Hindu calendar month of Shravan and the annual Maha Shivratri Mela, which takes place in early spring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh</span> 6th century Hindu temple

The Dashavatara Temple is an early 6th century Hindu temple located at Deogarh, Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh which is 125 kilometers from Jhansi, in the Betwa River valley in northern-central India. It has a simple, one cell square plan and is one of the earliest Hindu stone temples still surviving today. Built in the Gupta Period, the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh shows the ornate Gupta style architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi</span>

The Kasivisvesvara temple, also referred to as the Kavatalesvara, Kashivishveshvara or Kashi Vishvanatha temple of Lakkundi is located in the Gadag district of Karnataka state, India. It is about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) from Gadag city, between Hampi and Goa. The Kasivisvesvara temple is one of the best illustrations of fully developed Kalyana Chalukya style of Hindu architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhutanatha group of temples, Badami</span> 7th to 12th century temples in Badami

The Bhutanatha group of temples are 7th to 12th century Hindu temples to the east of Agastya lake in Badami, Karnataka state, India. It consists of two subgroups – one called the East Bhutanatha group or Bhutanatha main group from 7th to 8th century mostly in the Dravida architecture style; the other called the North Bhutanatha group or Mallikarjuna group from 11th to 12th century mostly in the Nagara architecture. The former illustrates the Badami Chalukya architects, the latter along with the nearby Yellamma temple the Kalyani Chalukya architects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh</span> Group of sandstone temples in India

The Bateshwar Hindu temples are a group of nearly 200 sandstone Hindu temples and their ruins in north Madhya Pradesh in post-Gupta, early Gurjara-Pratihara style of North Indian temple architecture. It is about 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of Gwalior and about 30 kilometres (19 mi) east of Morena town. The temples are mostly small and spread over about 25 acres (10 ha) site. They are dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti - representing the three major traditions within Hinduism. The site is within the Chambal River valley ravines, on the north-western slope of a hill near Padavali known for its major medieval era Vishnu temple. The Bateshwar temples were built between the 8th and the 10th-century. The site is likely named after the Bhuteshvar Temple, the largest Shiva temple at the site. It is also referred to as Batesvar temples site or Batesara temples site.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhitargaon</span> Town in Kanpur district famous for its ancient Hindu temple

Bhitargaon is a town, near city of Kanpur in Kanpur Nagar district, Uttar Pradesh, India, known for its ancient Hindu temple, the largest Indian brick temple to survive from the time of the Gupta Empire. Despite being heavily restored, a number of original features remain. It is dated to the late 5th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sasbahu Temple, Gwalior</span>

Saas Bahu Temples, also called the Saas aur Bahu ke Mandir, Sas-Bahu Twin Temples, are the 11th-century twin temples in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. Within Gwalior Fort complex and dedicated to Vishnu & Shiva, like most Hindu and Jain temples in this region, they are mostly in ruins and were badly damaged from numerous invasions and Hindu-Muslim wars in the region. The larger temple was built in 1093 by King Mahipala of the Kachchhapaghata dynasty for his wife as she was an ardent Vishnu devotee. After few years the smaller temple was commissioned and constructed on the orders of King Mahipala for his daughter-in-law who was an ardent Shiva devotee, according to an inscription found in the larger of the twin temples. Thus making these two temples as the most unique & iconic temples of India. The twin temples are situated in the Gwalior Fort.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tigawa</span>

Tigawa is a village in Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and an archaeological site with a complex of about 36 Hindu temple ruins. Of these, the small but important and ancient Kankali Devi Temple is in good condition, and is usually dated to about 400-425 CE. Unless another building is mentioned, references to "the temple" below refer to this.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brahmeshvara Temple, Kikkeri</span>

The Brahmeshvara temple, also referred to as the Brahmeshwara or Brahmesvara temple, is a 12th-century Hindu temple with Hoysala architecture in Kikkeri village, Mandya district of Karnataka state, India. Along with two other major historic temples within the village, the Brahmeshvara temple is one of many major ruined temples with notable artwork in Kikkeri area close to the more famous monuments of Shravanabelagola.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alampur Navabrahma Temples</span>

Alampuram Navabrahma Temples are a group of nine early Badami Chalukyan Hindu temples dated between the 7th and 9th centuries that are located at Alampuram (Hemalapuram) in Telangana, India, near the meeting point of Tungabhadra River and Krishna River at the border of Andhra Pradesh. They are called Nava-Brahma temples though they are dedicated to Shiva. They exemplify early North Indian Nagara style architecture with cut rock as the building block. The temples of Alampur resemble the style of Pattadakal, Aihole style as they were Karnata Dravida, Vesara style native to Karnataka.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram</span> UNESCO World Heritage Site in Tamil Nadu, India

The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in the coastal resort town of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, about 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Chennai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chaya Someswara Temple</span> Hindu temple in Telangana, India

Chaya Someswara Temple, also known as Chaya Someshvara Swamy Alayam or the Saila-Somesvara temple, is a Saivite Hindu temple located in Panagal, Nalgonda district of Telangana, India. It was built around the mid 11th-century during the rule of the Kunduru Chodas, supported and embellished further by later Hindu dynasties of Telangana. Some date it to late 11th to early 12th-century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Masrur Temples</span> 8th-century rock cut stone temple and ruins in Himachal Pradesh

The Masrur Temples, also referred to as Masroor Temples or Rock-cut Temples at Masrur, is an early 8th-century complex of rock-cut Hindu temples in the Kangra Valley of Beas River in Himachal Pradesh, India. The temples face northeast, towards the Dhauladhar range of the Himalayas. They are a version of North Indian Nagara architecture style, dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, Devi and Saura traditions of Hinduism, with its surviving iconography likely inspired by a henotheistic framework.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nachna Hindu temples</span> Early stone temples in India

Nachna Hindu temples, also referred to as Nachana temples or Hindu temples at Nachna-Kuthara, in Panna district, Madhya Pradesh, India are some of the earliest surviving stone temples in central India along with those at Bhumara and Deogarh. Their dating is uncertain, but comparing their style to structures that can be dated, some of the Nachna temples are variously dated to the 5th- or 6th-century Gupta Empire era. The Chaturmukha temple is dated to the 9th century. These temples illustrate a North Indian style of Hindu temple architecture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhumara Temple</span> 5th or 6th-century Gupta era Hindu stone temple

Bhumara Temple, sometimes called Bhumra, Bhubhara or Bharkuleswar, is a 5th or 6th-century Gupta era Hindu stone temple site dedicated to Shiva near Satna, in the Indian state Madhya Pradesh. The temple has a square plan with a sanctum and Mandapa. While much of it is in ruins, enough of the temple structure and works of art have survived for scholarly studies. The temple is notable as one of the early examples of an architecture that included an enclosed concentric pradakshina-patha. Like other early Gupta era Hindu temples, it includes a decorated entrance to the sanctum flanked by Ganga and Yamuna goddesses, and intricately carved sculptures.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 George Michell (1977). The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms. University of Chicago Press. pp. 117 with footnotes. ISBN   978-0-226-53230-1.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Margaret Prosser Allen (1991). Ornament in Indian Architecture. University of Delaware Press. pp. 203–204. ISBN   978-0-87413-399-8.
  3. 1 2 Madhusudan A. Dhaky; Michael Meister (1991). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture. American Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 25–28. ISBN   978-0-8122-7840-8.
  4. Kailash Chand Jain (1972). Malwa Through The Ages. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 429–431. ISBN   978-81-208-0824-9.
  5. 1 2 Vinayak Bharne; Krupali Krusche (2014). Rediscovering the Hindu Temple: The Sacred Architecture and Urbanism of India. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 70–73 with Figure 5.12. ISBN   978-1-4438-6734-4.
  6. 1 2 3 Michael W. Meister (1983), Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), page 269, 278-280
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Herman Goetz (1955), The Last Masterpiece of Gupta Art: The Great Temple of Yasovarman of Kanauj ('Telika Mandir') at Gwalior, Art and Letters, Vol. XXIX, No. 2, pages 47-59
  8. Group of temples at Batesar , ASI Bhopal Circle (2014)
  9. Naresar Temples, ASI Bhopal Circle (2014)
  10. Margaret Prosser Allen (1991). Ornament in Indian Architecture. University of Delaware Press. pp. 203–204, 211–212. ISBN   978-0-87413-399-8.
  11. Gudrun Bühnemann (2003). Maònòdalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions. BRILL. pp. xiv, 259–266. ISBN   90-04-12902-2.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Teli Mandir, A Cunningham, pages 356-361
  13. Aline Dobbie (2004). India: The Tiger's Roar. Melrose Press. p. 61. ISBN   978-0-9548480-2-6.
  14. 1 2 3 Gwalior Fort: Gwalior, ASI Bhopal Circle, Government of India
  15. Michael W. Meister (1983), Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), page 267 with footnote 11
  16. 1 2 K. D. Bajpai (2006). History of Gopāchala. Bharatiya Jnanpith. p. 31. ISBN   978-81-263-1155-2.
  17. Hermann Goetz; Hermann Kulke (1974). Studies in the history, religion and art of classical and mediaeval India. Steiner. p. 61.
  18. "Panoramic past". Frontline. 17 May 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  19. India. Curator of Ancient Monuments; Henry Hardy Cole (1882). Report of the Curator of Ancient Monuments in India. Government Central Branch Press. p. 17.
  20. 1 2 Goodearth Publications. Temples of Madhya Pradesh. Goodearth Publications. p. 46. ISBN   978-93-80262-49-9.
  21. Michael W. Meister (1983), Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), page 278, context: 266-296
  22. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2009). Britannica Guide to India. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. p. 252. ISBN   978-1-59339-847-7.
  23. Kathleen Kuiper (15 August 2010). The Culture of India. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 307. ISBN   978-1-61530-149-2.
  24. Ramakrishna, Lalitha (September 2018). "Grand temples of Madhya Pradesh". Tattvaloka. XLI (6). Sringeri: Sri Abhinava Vidyatheertha Mahaswamigal Educational Trust: 47–52. ISSN   0970-8901.
  25. Brajesh Krishna (1 January 1990). The art under the Gurjara-Pratihāras. Harman Pub. House. ISBN   978-81-85151-16-8.
  26. "Gwalior Fort". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  27. Vardhana attribution by the Indian Museum in New Delhi, see label of the lion capital
  28. 1 2 3 4 Michael W. Meister (1983), Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1983), pages 266-296
  29. Vardhana attribution by the Indian Museum in New Delhi, see label of the lion capital

Bibliography