Transboundary protected area

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Flags of Canada and the United States in Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park MK02244 Waterton Glacier International Peace Park.jpg
Flags of Canada and the United States in Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park

A transboundary protected area (TBPA) is an ecological protected area that spans boundaries of more than one country or sub-national entity. Such areas are also known as transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) or peace parks. [1] [2] [3]

Contents

TBPAs exist in many forms around the world, [4] and are established for various reasons. The preservation of traditional animal migration patterns, ensuring sufficient food and water sources for population growth, is a critical reason for the creation of TBPAs. However, TBPAs also encourage tourism, economic development and goodwill between neighbouring countries, as well as making it easier for indigenous inhabitants of the area to travel. [5] [ not specific enough to verify ]

Types of transboundary protected areas

TBPAs exist in various types of geographic configuration, with various levels of ecological protection, and with various levels of international cooperation. Additionally, different organizations employ different definitions for TBPAs. Julia Marton-Lefevre broadly defines TBPAs as "areas that involve a degree of cooperation across one or more boundaries between (or within) countries." [6] The Southern Africa Development Community's Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement defines Transfrontier Conservation Area as "the area or the component of a large ecological region that straddles the boundaries of two or more countries, encompassing one or more protected areas, as well as multiple resources use areas." [7] The Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network (GTPAN) lists four types of "transboundary conservation areas:"

GTPAN defines a transboundary protected area as "a clearly defined geographical space that includes protected areas that are ecologically connected across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation." GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape as "an ecologically connected area that includes both protected areas and multiple resource use areas across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation." [8]

GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation migration area as "wildlife habitats in two or more countries that are necessary to sustain populations of migratory species and involve some form of cooperation." [8]

GTPAN defines a "park for peace" as "any of the three types of transboundary conservation areas [that is] dedicated to the promotion, celebration and/or commemoration of peace and cooperation."

In many instances, individual TBPAs are part of broader international environmental or cultural programs. TBPAs can be World Heritage Sites, Ramsar Wetlands, and/or UNESCO Biosphere Reserves.

History of transboundary protected areas

In 1932, the governments of Canada and the United States passed legislation creating the first international peace park: Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. This action followed from a joint resolution of the Rotary Clubs of Montana and Alberta calling for the creation of the peace park. [9]

On 1 February 1997, Anton Rupert, together with Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands and Nelson Mandela, founded the Peace Parks Foundation as a nonprofit organisation to facilitate the establishment of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs). [10]

A 2001 study by the World Conservation Union found "there were 166 existing transboundary protected area complexes worldwide comprising 666 individual conservation zones." [6]

In 2007, the Global Transboundary Conservation Network published a global inventory of transboundary protected areas identifying 227 transboundary protected areas. [11]

Established transboundary protected areas

Africa

Victoria Falls--National Parks in Zambia and Zimbabwe form a TBPA. Natural wonders topic image Victoria falls.jpg
Victoria Falls--National Parks in Zambia and Zimbabwe form a TBPA.

Transboundary World Heritage Sites

Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands

Transboundary Biosphere Reserves

  • Delta du Fleuve Senegal is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Mauritania and Senegal. [20]
  • Mono is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Benin and Togo. [20]

Transboundary Conservation Complexes

  • ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Namibia and South Africa. [11] [27]
  • Chimanimani Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation area on the border of Mozambique and Zimbabwe, made up of Mozambique's Chimanimani National Reserve and Zimbabwe's Chimanimani National Park.
  • Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. It is partially composed of Mozambique's Limpopo National Park, South Africa's Kruger National Park and Zimbabwe's Gonarezhou National Park and Sengwe Corridor. [11] [28]
  • Greater Mapungubwe is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe. [29]
  • Kavango Zambezi is a transboundary conservation complex on the borders of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is the world's largest TBPA and encompasses the Mosi-oa-Tunya World Heritage site listed above. [11] [30]
  • Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana and South Africa. [11]
  • Kidepo is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of South Sudan and Uganda. It is composed of South Sudan's Kidepo Game Reserve and Uganda's Kidepo Valley National Park. [11]
  • Kilimanjaro is a transboundary conservation complex centered around Mount Kilimanjaro and on the border of Kenya and Tanzania. It is composed of Tanzania's Kilimanjaro National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and Kenya's Amboseli National Park. [11] [31]
  • Lower Zambezi - Mana Pools is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe. [32]
  • Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Eswatini. [11] [33]
  • Malawi-Zambia TFCA is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Malawi and Zambia. It crosses the border at multiple locations. [11] [34]
  • Niokolo Koba-Badiar is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Guinea and Senegal. [11]
  • Serengeti-Masai is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Kenya and Tanzania. [11]
  • A transboundary conservation complex crosses the border of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. It is composed partially of a Ramsar wetland in Burkina Faso and the National Park of Comoe in Côte d'Ivoire. [35]
  • The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
    1. Liberia and Sierra Leone;
    2. Guinea and Liberia;
    3. Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia;
    4. Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana at three locations;
    5. Cameroon and Nigeria at two locations;
    6. Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea;
    7. Central African Republic and Sudan;
    8. Congo and Gabon;
    9. Democratic Republic of the Congo and what is now South Sudan;
    10. What is now South Sudan and Uganda;
    11. Kenya and Uganda;
    12. Kenya and Somalia;
    13. Burundi and Rwanda;
    14. Rwanda and Tanzania;
    15. Tanzania and Uganda;
    16. Tanzania and Zambia;
    17. Mozambique and Tanzania; and
    18. Angola and Namibia. [11]
Uvs Nuur Basin is a TBPA in Mongolia and Russia. Uvs nuur.jpg
Uvs Nuur Basin is a TBPA in Mongolia and Russia.

Asia

The Danube Delta is a TBPA and home to pelicans and cormorants. Dalmatian Pelican and Great Cormorant in danube delta.jpg
The Danube Delta is a TBPA and home to pelicans and cormorants.

Europe

Transboundary World Heritage Sites

Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands

Transboundary Biosphere Reserves

Of the world's twenty transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserves, twelve are in Europe. Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Ukraine each contribute to three reserves.

  • Danube Delta is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Romania and Ukraine. [20]
  • East Carpathians is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine. [20]
  • Geres - Xures is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain. [20]
  • Meseta Iberica is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain. [20]
  • Mont Viso / Area della Biosfera del Monviso is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Italy. [20]
  • Mura Drava Danube is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Croatia and Hungary. [20]
  • Tatra is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Slovakia and Poland. [20]
  • Tejo/Tajo Internacional is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
  • Vosges du Nord / Pfalzerwald is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Germany. [20]
  • West Polesie is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine. [20]

Transboundary Conservation Complexes

North America

Flags of Canada and the United States fly on the Peace Arch in Peace Arch Park. Peace arch Canada-US border.jpg
Flags of Canada and the United States fly on the Peace Arch in Peace Arch Park.

Canada and the United States

Canadian interprovincial Parks
United States interstate parks

Mexico and the United States

Latin America

Iguazu Falls--National Parks in Argentina and Brazil form a TBPA. Iguacu-002.jpg
Iguazu Falls--National Parks in Argentina and Brazil form a TBPA.
Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean includes land in Morocco and Spain (light green), and part of the Strait of Gibraltar (dark blue). Reserva de la biosfera intercontinental del Mediterraneo.svg
Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean includes land in Morocco and Spain (light green), and part of the Strait of Gibraltar (dark blue).

Intercontinental TBPAs

Areas in the conceptual phase

The DMZ is a habitat for many threatened species on the Korean peninsula, including the black bear. Ursus thibetanus 3 (Wroclaw zoo).JPG
The DMZ is a habitat for many threatened species on the Korean peninsula, including the black bear.

TBPA advocates by 2006 had identified additional sites for protection. Professor Saleem Ali of the University of Vermont noted that "numerous ecologically sensitive areas remain unprotected" and cites a 2006 "geographic information systems (GIS) study" that "found 104 transboundary wild areas involving 61 countries that are not formally part of any conservation park." [6] Specific sites for proposed TBPAs include:

As awareness of the importance of conserving the pristinity and ecology of Arctic region has increased,[ according to whom? ] there has been a global call to declare the Arctic region as a global sanctuary/international peace park. The Save the Arctic [91] campaign by Greenpeace, an environmental nonprofit organisation, has received online support from more than 5 million citizens from around the world.

Areas with treaty signed

Memorandums of agreement signed

Impacts on peace and conflict

Transboundary protected areas are also termed peace parks. They are supposed to facilitate cooperation and exchange between (adversary) countries, to improve livelihoods of local populations, to demonstrate the possibility of positive-sum interactions, and hence to support more peaceful international relations. [93] There are several cases documented in which trans-boundary conservation contributed to conflict resolution (although it was not the main driver), such as in the Virunga region between the DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda, [94] around the Trifinio region between El Salvador and Honduras, [95] and in the Cordillera del Cóndor region between Ecuador and Peru. [96] According to a statistical analysis published in 2014, states that share a trans-boundary protected area are slightly less likely to engage with militarized disputes with each other. But the question remains whether the TBPA is a driver or consequence on better interstate relations in these cases. [97] A more recent analysis triangulates data from various sources to show that international environmental cooperation (in the form of TBPAs and water treaties) increases the likelihood for reconciliation between states in conflict. The effect is, however, modest and contingent on a number of context factors such as high levels of environmental attention, internal political stability, a tradition of environmental cooperation and already ongoing processes of reconciliation. [95]

However, a number of authors criticize that peace parks have a very limited impact on formal relations between states, but can accelerate conflicts on the local level, for instance by extending (authoritarian) state control, by prioritizing business and tourism over the interests of local populations, and by excluding local people from the protected areas. [98] [2] [99] TBPAs can also stimulate (low-level) international conflicts, for instance about the sharing of revenues or the presence of human populations in the parks. [100]

Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management

A Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management was developed by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD), its Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative in partnership with UNDP and the NBSAP Forum. This free three-week course offered in five languages: English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic. Financial support is provided by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity's Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative funded by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea.

This course will:

The course is designed for Peace Park development practitioners and environmental peacebuilding enthusiasts but is open to everyone. [101] Participants must create an account on Learning for Nature before registering for the course.

See also

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References

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  69. ↑ "Palisades Interstate Park Commission | Palisades Interstate Park in New Jersey". Njpalisades.org. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
  70. ↑ "Park Maps and Trail Info | Breaks Park". Breakspark.com. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
  71. ↑ Reicher, Dan W. (14 March 2019). "Opinion - Forget Trump's Border Wall. Let's Build F.D.R.'s International Park". The New York Times . Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  72. ↑ "Plan Trifinio - El Salvador - Guatemala - Honduras" (PDF). Oas.org.
  73. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves / La Amistad National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-01.
  74. ↑ "Volcán Tacaná | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". Unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
  75. ↑ "Gandoca-Manzanillo | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
  76. ↑ "San San - Pond Sak | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
  77. ↑ "Reserva de Usos Múltiples Río Sarstún | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
  78. ↑ "Sarstoon Temash National Park | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-06.
  79. ↑ Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network. "Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network". Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
  80. ↑ "Cordillera del Condor - Negotiating a Peace Park | Institute For Environmental Diplomacy And Security (IEDS)". Uvm.edu. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
  81. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Torres del Paine and Bernardo O'Higgins National Parks, Region of Magallanes - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
  82. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Los Glaciares National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
  83. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Iguaçu National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
  84. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Iguazu National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
  85. ↑ "Lago Titicaca | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
  86. ↑ "Lago Titicaca | Ramsar Sites Information Service". Rsis.ramsar.org. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
  87. ↑ "Intercontinental BR of the Mediterranean | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". Unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  88. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Los Katíos National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  89. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Darien National Park". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  90. ↑ Pool, Catherine (2006). "Transboundary Protected Areas as a Solution to Border Issues". Nebraska Anthropologist. 23: 41–57.
  91. ↑ "Save the Arctic - YOUR actions make a difference". Peoplevsoil.org. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
  92. ↑ "Angola and Namibia sign MoA for Iona-Skeleton Transfrontier Park". Transfrontier Conservation Areas. 4 May 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
  93. ↑ Ali, Saleem H. (2007). Peace Parks: Conservation and Conflict Resolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN   9780262012355.
  94. ↑ Martin, Adrian; Rutagarama, Eugene; Cascão, Ana; Gray, Maryke; Chhotray, Vasudha (September 2011). "Understanding the co-existence of conflict and cooperation: Transboundary ecosystem management in the Virunga Massif" (PDF). Journal of Peace Research. 48 (5): 621–635. doi:10.1177/0022343311412410. ISSN   0022-3433. S2CID   53334931.
  95. 1 2 Ide, Tobias (May 2018). "Does environmental peacemaking between states work? Insights on cooperative environmental agreements and reconciliation in international rivalries". Journal of Peace Research. 55 (3): 351–365. doi:10.1177/0022343317750216. ISSN   0022-3433. S2CID   117600202.
  96. ↑ Carius, Alexander (2006). Environmental Peacebuilding: Environmental Cooperation as an Instrument of Crisis Prevention and Peacebuilding: Conditions for Success and Constraints (PDF). Berlin: adelphi.
  97. ↑ Barquet, Karina; Lujala, Päivi; Rød, Jan Ketil (September 2014). "Transboundary conservation and militarized interstate disputes". Political Geography. 42: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.05.003.
  98. ↑ Duffy, Rosaleen (September 2001). "Peace parks: The paradox of globalisation1". Geopolitics. 6 (2): 1–26. doi:10.1080/14650040108407715. ISSN   1465-0045. S2CID   144665048.
  99. ↑ Büscher, Bram; Ramutsindela, Maano (2015-12-24). "Green Violence: Rhino Poaching and the War to Save Southern Africa's Peace Parks". African Affairs: adv058. doi:10.1093/afraf/adv058. ISSN   0001-9909.
  100. ↑ van Amerom, Marloes; Büscher, Bram (2005-06-16). "Peace parks in Southern Africa: bringers of an African Renaissance?". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 43 (2): 159–182. doi:10.1017/S0022278X05000790. hdl: 1871/21865 . ISSN   0022-278X.
  101. ↑ "Peace Park Development and Management – Learning for Nature" . Retrieved 2019-03-25.

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