Triodia scariosa

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Triodia scariosa
Triodia scariosa annular growth ring with inflorescence (Nanya Research Station, NSW).jpg
Triodia scariosa depicting annular growth ring with inflorescence
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Triodia
Species:
T. scariosa
Binomial name
Triodia scariosa
N.T.Burb
Triodia scariosa range map 2022.png
Occurrence data from ALA [1] [ citation needed ]
Synonyms [2]
Species synonymy
  • Triodia bunicola (S.W.L.Jacobs) Lazarides
  • Triodia bunicola (S.W.L.Jacobs) Lazarides
  • Triodia bunicola (S.W.L.Jacobs) Lazarides
  • Triodia irritans var. laxispicata N.T.Burb.
  • Triodia scariosa subsp. bunicola
  • Triodia scariosa subsp. yelarbonensis S.W.L.Jacobs
  • Triodia truncata S.W.L.Jacobs
Triodia scariosa in hummock form with inflorescence (Following heavy rains). Nanya Research Station, NSW. Nov 2022. Triodia scariosa in hummock form and with inflorescence (Nanya Research Station, NSW).jpg
Triodia scariosa in hummock form with inflorescence (Following heavy rains). Nanya Research Station, NSW. Nov 2022.

Triodia scariosa, is more commonly known as porcupine grass or spinifex (not to be confused with Spinifex spp.), [3] and belongs to the endemic Australian grass genus Triodia. [4] The species is perennial and evergreen and individuals grow in mounds, called hummocks, that reach up to ~1m in height. [5] The leaves are ~30 cm long, 1mm in diameter, needlepointed and rigid, and its inflorescence is a narrow, loose panicle that forms a flowering stalk up to ~2m in height. [6] The name is derived from Latin; Triodia refers to the three-toothed lobes of the lemma, and scariosa is in reference to the thin, dry glume. The species is common to Mallee (MVG14) [7] and Hummock grassland (MVG20) [8] communities, in arid and semi-arid regions of Australia. [5]

Contents

Leaf of Triodia scariosa Triodia scariosa leaf1 (9511797111).jpg
Leaf of Triodia scariosa

Evolutionary relationships

Panicle (inflorescence) and seed formation of Triodia scariosa. Nanya Research Station, NSW. Nov 2022. Panicle (inflorescence) of Triodia scariosa.jpg
Panicle (inflorescence) and seed formation of Triodia scariosa. Nanya Research Station, NSW. Nov 2022.

Triodia scariosa can be accurately traced back to the order Poales (Grasses, sedges and their relatives). [9] [10] Poales are found globally and represent one third of moncotyledons (~20,000 species), and approximately 7% of all angiosperms. [10] Poales branch away from other monocotyledons in the late cretaceous (>65 million years ago) [9] and can be identified by three gene sequences (rbcL, atpB, and 18S rDNA). [10] In this order, Poaceae (grasses) form the largest family [10] which are recognised by their branching growth pattern (where shoots follow a consecutive branching order). [5] [11] Poaceae are phylogenetically linked to South America and Africa, Australia's break away away from Gondwana ~35mya is thought to have influenced the evolution of the graminid clade that is predominantly found in Australia. [10]

The genus Triodia is part of the subfamily Chloridoideae that thought to have diversified in drier habitats with the evolution of the C4 photosynthetic process. [12] The genus was first described by Robert Brown in 1810 and included six species. [12] Since 1937, it has included only Australian species and currently acknowledges 73 distinct species (increasing) including T. scariosa. [12] Increased access to DNA sequencing data is improving accuracy of species identification, for example, a study undertaken in 2012 found that T. scariosa and T. bunicola were in fact the same species and are now recognised as a single species under the T. scariosa clade. [6]

Distribution

Triodia scariosa with inflorescence in Hattah-Kulkyne NP, Vic. Nov 2022. Following heavy rain. Triodia scariosa (with infloresence) in Mallee landscape at Hattah Kulkyne NP, Vic (Nov 2022).jpg
Triodia scariosa with inflorescence in Hattah-Kulkyne NP, Vic. Nov 2022. Following heavy rain.
T. scariosa spikelet of flowerhead Triodia scariosa spikelet4 (9514561704).jpg
T. scariosa spikelet of flowerhead

Triodia scariosa occurs throughout semi-arid and arid regions of mainland Australia south of ~24o latitude (excludes Northern Territory and Tasmania) and mostly within a mean annual rainfall of 200-400mm. [5] [6] The species occurs in its highest abundance in the Mediterranean-type climate of the Mallee ecosystem found in Western Australia, South Australia and western Victoria. [13] [14] Although T. scariosa occurs in hummock grasslands (MVG20) of the arid interior, it is at much lower densities. [14] The increase in abundance, and growth, of the species in the semi-arid Mallee ecosystem is due to increased rainfall and the presence of yellow sandy soils (compared to the red sandy soils of the arid interior). [14]

Conservation status

Triodia scariosa is common, and currently not listed as threatened at state or national level. [15] However, numerous threatened species and ecosystems are reliant on T. scariosa as a foundation species. For example, in the critically endangered ecological community ‘Porcupine Grass-Red Mallee-Gum Coolabah hummock grassland/low sparse woodland in the Broken Hill Complex Bioregion’ (NSW), T. scariosa is habitat for three endangered lizard species ( Cyclodomorphus melanops elongatus, Delma australis, and Ctenophorus decresii ) . [16] Similarly, in the Murray-Mallee (North west Victoria, adjacent South Australia and south west New South Wales) ongoing effects of historic land clearing, fragmentation, altered fire regimes and climate change have been identified as drivers that are likely to impact the long term persistence of T. scariosa in this landscape. [12] [17] Further, numerous endemic and highly threatened species are reliant on T. scariosa in this ecosystem for their persistence in the wild (e.g. Stipiturus Mallee, Ningaui yvonneae, Ctenophorus fordi ). [12] [17] [18]

Ecology

Throughout its range, T. scariosa is a foundation species; fundamental to the resilience and structure of an ecosystem. [17] [18] [19] A broad range of fauna taxa are associated with T. scariosa including birds, mammals, reptiles and arthropods, [17] [18] which utilise the complex growth structures for foraging, nesting, refuge from predators and temperature amelioration. [18] The endangered Mallee Emu-wren (Stipiturus mallee), endemic to the Murray-Mallee, relies entirely on the species for hunting, nesting, mating, foraging and breeding and rarely disperses out of the hummocks. [17] Additionally, very high lizard diversity and abundance is associated with T. scariosa. [12] [20]

Vegetation species associated with T. scariosa are associated with its distribution within its range and the regions climate. [3] [7] In the arid zone, it co-occurs with other Triodia species, and is also associated with Acacia, Corymbia, and Eucalyptus woodland. [3] In the southern aspect of its range, it is most commonly associated with an overstory dominated by Mallee Eucalypts (Eucalyptus dumosa and E. socialis), [17] but also Callitris, Melaleuca, Acacia and Hakea. [7] T. scariosa distribution is associated with soils that are low in available water and nutrients [21] and the extensive root system provides mechanical support for soils, reducing the loss of the thin aeolian topsoil layer. [5] [21]

Triodia scariosa contributes to the fire ecology of a landscape, as the dry fuel load from ageing individuals in the landscape increases in mass in the time since fire before plateauing and declining . [17] [21] In the Murray-Mallee, wildfires are large (1000's ha), burn at both high and uniform severity and connection through the landscape is provided by the continuous fuel source of T. scariosa, resulting in top kill of the low canopy tree species. [17] In this landscape, all vegetation is removed following fire, and regeneration is uniform and predictable, including the presence of fauna species. [17] The interval between wildfire in this ecosystem is associated with regeneration of T. scariosa over time, and its accumulation of dead core material, which (under suitable climatic conditions) promotes and sustains wildfire in the landscape. [17] [21] This is usually possible at a minimum interval of 10–20 years post fire, peaking at ~20–30 years, but if rainfall has been high it can be within 2 years. [17] [21] [22]

Life history traits

Regeneration of T. scariosa is heavily linked to rainfall and fire. [21] Heavy rainfall (late spring/early summer) promotes mast seeding and the establishment or elevation of the soil seed bank. [5] [19] Fire kills adult individuals but triggers germination in the stored seedbank, and when followed by later seasonal rains, leads to enhanced seedling germination. [19] The prolonged absence of fire reduces the species ability to regenerate from seed, due to seed viability of only 2–3 years. [19] [23] The species can regenerate poorly from basal meristem, [21] however in arid regions, this promotes the species' survival where rainfall is reduced. [21] The breeding systems of Triodiaspp are unclear, but are thought to be both self and cross-fertilising systems. [24]

Growth of T. scariosa occurs via stolons, which expand outward from its centre as the plant ages. [5] The size and complexity of individual plants is influenced by time since fire, environmental factors (soil, ecological relationships) and climate variables. [14] [17] [19] [22] T. scariosa's C4 photosynthetic pathway supports higher growth rates and water use efficiency at higher temperatures, and growth is enhanced with summer rainfall. [14] In the first few years post-fire, T. scariosa cover increases relatively rapidly, peaks at ~30 years, then declines slowly over subsequent decades. [17] It has been suggested that T. scariosa requires >20 years between fire interval for individual plants to mature, and establish seed-banks and habitat complexity before fire returns to ensure suitable levels of regeneration in the landscape. [19] [22]

A notable feature of T. triodia is the annular growth ring that forms with age. As the plant ages, it grows outwardly in ring or crescent form, and the old growth dies off in the centre. [5] [6] These features can grow up to 3m in diameter and individuals may join to form reef-like patterns in the landscape. [5] [6] The rings are uncommon in the first 20–30 years post-fire, but peak at ~55 years, before the plant senesces over the following decades. [17] [22]

Triodia scariosa in Mallee landscape ~20 years post fire. Nanya research station, NSW. Nov 2022. Triodia scariosa in Mallee landscape ~20 years post fire (Nanya Research Station, NSW).jpg
Triodia scariosa in Mallee landscape ~20 years post fire. Nanya research station, NSW. Nov 2022.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poales</span> Order of monocotyledonous flowering plants

The Poales are a large order of flowering plants in the monocotyledons, and includes families of plants such as the grasses, bromeliads, rushes and sedges. Sixteen plant families are currently recognized by botanists to be part of Poales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grassland</span> Area with vegetation dominated by grasses

A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands. They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Savanna</span> Mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem

A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. According to Britannica, there exists four savanna forms; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rangeland</span> Biomes which can be grazed by animals or livestock (grasslands, woodlands, prairies, etc)

Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and tundras. Rangelands do not include forests lacking grazable understory vegetation, barren desert, farmland, or land covered by solid rock, concrete and/or glaciers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire ecology</span> Study of fire in ecosystems

Fire ecology is a scientific discipline concerned with the effects of fire on natural ecosystems. Many ecosystems, particularly prairie, savanna, chaparral and coniferous forests, have evolved with fire as an essential contributor to habitat vitality and renewal. Many plant species in fire-affected environments use fire to germinate, establish, or to reproduce. Wildfire suppression not only endangers these species, but also the animals that depend upon them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Secondary succession</span> Redevelopment of an encology after an event that changes it radically

Secondary succession is the secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event that reduces an already established ecosystem to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. Many factors can affect secondary succession, such as trophic interaction, initial composition, and competition-colonization trade-offs. The factors that control the increase in abundance of a species during succession may be determined mainly by seed production and dispersal, micro climate; landscape structure ; bulk density, pH, and soil texture.

<i>Triodia</i> (plant) Genus of plants

Triodia is a large genus of hummock grass endemic to Australia. The species of this genus are known by the common name spinifex, although they are not a part of the coastal genus Spinifex. Many soft-leaved Triodia species were formerly included in the genus Plectrachne. Triodia is known as tjanpi (grass) in central Australia, and have several traditional uses amongst the Aboriginal Australian peoples of the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Western Australia</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mallee emu-wren</span> Species of bird

The mallee emu-wren is a species of bird in the Australasian wren family, Maluridae. It is endemic to Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tussock grass</span> Species of grass

Tussock grasses or bunch grasses are a group of grass species in the family Poaceae. They usually grow as singular plants in clumps, tufts, hummocks, or bunches, rather than forming a sod or lawn, in meadows, grasslands, and prairies. As perennial plants, most species live more than one season. Tussock grasses are often found as forage in pastures and ornamental grasses in gardens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flora of Australia</span> Plant species of Australia

The flora of Australia comprises a vast assemblage of plant species estimated to over 21,000 vascular and 14,000 non-vascular plants, 250,000 species of fungi and over 3,000 lichens. The flora has strong affinities with the flora of Gondwana, and below the family level has a highly endemic angiosperm flora whose diversity was shaped by the effects of continental drift and climate change since the Cretaceous. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae, and Fabaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands</span>

Mallee Woodlands and Shrublands is one of 32 Major Vegetation Groups defined by the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Energy and one of the 189 habitats in the HOTW habitats of the World classification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charcoal Tank Nature Reserve</span> Protected area in New South Wales, Australia

The Charcoal Tank Nature Reserve is a protected nature reserve in the central western region of New South Wales, Australia. The 86.4-hectare (213-acre) reserve is situated 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) south of West Wyalong and may be accessed via the Newell Highway and The Charcoal Tank Road. The reserve is an important refuge for native flora and fauna in a highly fragmented landscape, one in which the majority of the original vegetation has been removed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Woody plant encroachment</span> Vegetation cover change

Woody plant encroachment is a natural phenomenon characterised by the increase in density of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause biome shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands. The term bush encroachment refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species. It is thus defined by plant density, not species. Bush encroachment is often considered an ecological regime shift and can be a symptom of land degradation. The phenomenon is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marble-faced delma</span> Species of legless lizard endemic to Australia

The Delma australis is often known as the southern legless lizard, or the marble-faced delma. This terrestrial lizard falls into the category of slender Pygopodidae, a legless lizard. There are 21 known species in the Pygopdidae family in Australia. Marble-faced delmas are endemic to Australia. Delma australis was first described by Kluge in 1974.

Triodia irritans is a species of plant that forms low and dense mounds of tough grassy vegetation. It is found on sandplains in arid regions of southern and central Australia.

The Southern Mallee ctenotus is a medium sized lizard in the family scincidae (skink) found in the central and southern interior regions of South Australia and Western Australia; the Mallee regions of NSW and Victoria, in Australia.

<i>Hemiergis millewae</i> Species of reptile

The Hemiergis millewae, commonly known as the Millewa skink or Triodia earless skink, is a species of hemiergis lizards that is endemic to Australia. It is a specialist species, highly dependent on Spinifex for food and shelter, and has only been observed in semi-arid Mallee woodlands of southern and eastern Australia. It is considered endangered throughout parts of its range.

<i>Ctenophorus spinodomus</i> Species of lizard

Ctenophorus spinodomus commonly known as Eastern Mallee Dragon, is a species of agamid lizard endemic to the arid and semi-arid regions of southeastern Australia. Belonging to the genus Ctenophorus, which comprises a diverse group of 35 species this small lizard is characterised by striking colours and unique behaviours. Commonly known as dragon lizards, spinodomus is derived from the Greek words "spinos" (thorn) and "domos" (house), referring to its preference for burrowing habitats among spiny vegetation. They are curious creatures and can be found darting between the safety of Triodia grass clumps or basking on the red sand.

<i>Triodia scintillans</i> Species of grass endemic to Western Australia

Triodia scintillans, the sparkling spinifex, or salt and vinegar chips spinifex is a species of grass in the genus Triodia. It tastes like salt and vinegar potato chips.

References

  1. ↑ "ALA | Login". auth.ala.org.au. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  2. ↑ "Triodia scariosa N.T.Burb. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  3. 1 2 3 Department of the Environment and Energy (2017). "NVIS Fact Sheet: MVG20 - Hummock grasslands" (PDF). Retrieved 14 October 2022.
  4. ↑ Pennells, Jordan; Yu Lin, Teo; Schmidt, Susanne; Gamage, Harshi; Godwin, Ian D.; Erickson, Todd E.; Hosseinmardi, Alireza; Martin, Darren J.; Amiralian, Nasim (2018). "Effects of the growth environment on the yield and material properties of nanocellulose derived from the Australian desert grass Triodia". Industrial Crops and Products. 126: 238–249. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.09.057. ISSN   0926-6690. S2CID   105936760.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Australian National Botanic Gardens, Parks Australia. "Triodia scariosa - Growing Native Plants". www.anbg.gov.au. Retrieved 2022-10-21.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Hurry, Charlotte R.; Walsh, Neville G.; Murphy, Daniel J. (2012). "A taxonomic review of Triodia bunicola and T. scariosa (Poaceae: Chloridoideae), based on morphological and molecular data". Australian Systematic Botany. 25 (5): 304. doi:10.1071/sb10044. ISSN   1030-1887. S2CID   84441427.
  7. 1 2 3 Department of Environment and Energy (2017). "NVIS Fact Sheet: MVG14 - Mallee woodlands and shrublands" (PDF). Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
  8. ↑ "NVIS Fact sheet MVG 20 – Hummock grasslands" (PDF). Australian Government | Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
  9. 1 2 Bouchenak-Khelladi, Yanis; Muasya, A. Muthama; Linder, H. Peter (2014). "A revised evolutionary history of Poales: origins and diversification". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 175 (1): 4–16. doi: 10.1111/boj.12160 . ISSN   0024-4074.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Bremer, Kåre (2002). "Gondwanan Evolution of the Grass Alliance of Families (Poales)". Evolution. 56 (7): 1374–1387. doi:10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[1374:geotga]2.0.co;2. ISSN   0014-3820. PMID   12206239.
  11. ↑ Perreta, Mariel; Ramos, Julio; Tivano, Juan C.; Vegetti, Abelardo (2011). "Descriptive characters of growth form in Poaceae—An overview". Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants. 206 (4): 283–293. doi:10.1016/j.flora.2010.04.022. hdl: 11336/76181 . ISSN   0367-2530.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Anderson, B. M. (2016). "Systematics and evolution of the Triodia basedowii species complex (Poaceae: Chloridoideae)" (PDF).{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ↑ E., Keeley, Jon (2012). Fire in Mediterranean ecosystems : ecology, evolution and management. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-82491-0. OCLC   785715379.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Gibson, Rebecca K.; Bradstock, Ross A.; Penman, Trent; Keith, David A.; Driscoll, Don A. (2016). "Determinants of growth of the flammable grass, Triodia scariosa: Consequences for fuel dynamics under climate change in the Mediterranean region of South Eastern Australia". Austral Ecology. 41 (6): 594–603. doi:10.1111/aec.12348. hdl: 11343/290977 . ISSN   1442-9985.
  15. ↑ "Seeds of South Australia - Species Information". spapps.environment.sa.gov.au. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
  16. ↑ Office of Environment & Heritage (19 October 2022). "Porcupine grass – Red Mallee – Gum Coolabah hummock grassland/low spare woodland in the Broken Hill Complex Bioregion – profile". NSW Department of Environment and Planning. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Clarke, Michael F.; Kelly, Luke T.; Avitabile, Sarah C.; Benshemesh, Joe; Callister, Kate E.; Driscoll, Don A.; Ewin, Peter; Giljohann, Katherine; Haslem, Angie; Kenny, Sally A.; Leonard, Steve; Ritchie, Euan G.; Nimmo, Dale G.; Schedvin, Natasha; Schneider, Kathryn (2021-05-25). "Fire and Its Interactions With Other Drivers Shape a Distinctive, Semi-Arid 'Mallee' Ecosystem". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2021.647557 . hdl: 10536/DRO/DU:30150913 . ISSN   2296-701X.
  18. 1 2 3 4 Verdon, Simon J.; Watson, Simon J.; Nimmo, Dale G.; Clarke, Michael F. (2020-05-22). "Are all fauna associated with the same structural features of the foundation speciesTriodia scariosa?". Austral Ecology. 45 (6): 773–787. doi:10.1111/aec.12894. ISSN   1442-9985. S2CID   219513298.
  19. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bell, Kristian; Doherty, Tim S.; Wevill, Tricia; Driscoll, Don A. (2022-05-12). "Restoration of a declining foundation plant species: Testing the roles of competitor suppression, fire reintroduction and herbivore exclusion". Journal of Applied Ecology. 59 (7): 1852–1862. doi: 10.1111/1365-2664.14192 . ISSN   0021-8901. S2CID   248605149.
  20. ↑ Morton, S. R.; James, C. D. (1988). "The Diversity and Abundance of Lizards in Arid Australia: A New Hypothesis". The American Naturalist. 132 (2): 237–256. doi:10.1086/284847. ISSN   0003-0147. S2CID   84146806.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Noble, JC; Vines, RG (1993). "Fire Studies in Mallee (Eucalyptus Spp.) Communities of Western New South Wales: Grass Fuel Dynamics and Associated Weather Patterns". The Rangeland Journal. 15 (2): 270. doi:10.1071/rj9930270. ISSN   1036-9872.
  22. 1 2 3 4 A., Bradstock, Ross (2010). Flammable Australia : the fire regimes and biodiversity of a continent. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN   978-0-521-12531-4. OCLC   844099179.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ↑ Kenny, Sally A.; Bennett, Andrew F.; Clarke, Michael F.; Morgan, John W. (2018-02-14). "Time-since-fire and climate interact to affect the structural recovery of an Australian semi-arid plant community". Austral Ecology. 43 (4): 456–469. doi: 10.1111/aec.12582 . ISSN   1442-9985.
  24. ↑ Wright, Boyd R.; Zuur, Alain F.; Chan, Gary C. K. (2014). "Proximate causes and possible adaptive functions of mast seeding and barren flower shows in spinifex grasses (Triodia spp.) in arid regions of Australia". The Rangeland Journal. 36 (3): 297. doi:10.1071/rj13104. ISSN   1036-9872.
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