1815 Bali earthquake

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1815 Bali earthquake
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Indonesia Bali location map.svg
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Local dateNovember 22, 1815 (1815-11-22)
Local time22:00-23:00 WITA
Magnitude Mw 7.0 [1]
Epicenter 8°00′S115°00′E / 8.0°S 115.0°E / -8.0; 115.0
Fault Flores back-arc thrust fault
Max. intensity MMI IX (Violent) [2]
TsunamiYes [3]
Casualties11,453 dead [4]

The 1815 Bali earthquake occurred on November 22 between 22:00 and 23:00 local time (WITA), affecting the Bali Kingdom. The estimated moment magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck off the north coast of Bali at a shallow depth. It was assigned a maximum intensity of IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale, causing severe damage in Buleleng and Tabanan. The earthquake caused a landslide and tsunami that killed 11,453 people.

Contents

Geology

Off the north coast of Bali is the Flores back-arc thrust fault, located in the back-arc region. It formed due to the convergence between the Sunda and Australian plates, accommodating compression. The two plates converge northward at a rate of 80 mm (3.1 in)/yr, in which the Sunda megathrust takes 70 mm (2.8 in)/yr of the movement. The remaining 10 mm (0.39 in)/yr rate is accommodated by the Flores Back Arc Thrust Fault. It runs off the north coast of the Lesser Sunda Islands, in the Banda Sea. [5] The fault extends east–west for 800 km (500 mi) off the north coast of Bali to Wetar. [6] Geologists postulate the fault is divided into two segments; the 450 km (280 mi)-long Flores Thrust, and 450 km (280 mi)-long Wetar Thrust. Its origin has been attributed to several causes proposed by researchers; magmatic intrusion, gravitational sliding, reverse subduction or active spreading in the back-arc. [6] It is a complex zone of thrust faults that are connected at depth.

Earthquake characteristics

The earthquake and tsunami is thought to be the result of a thrust fault rupture on the Flores back-arc thrust fault. [7] The fault was the source of approximately 26 magnitude 6.0+ earthquakes since 1960. These earthquakes were calculated to be at depths of up to 40 km (25 mi) beneath the crust. It was also the source of the 1992 and 2018 earthquakes that caused many fatalities. [6] The 1815 event is the earliest documented earthquake along the fault. [8] Modelling of a moment magnitude 7.3 earthquake at 10 km (6.2 mi) depth could produce Modified Mercalli intensity VIII–IX along the north central and eastern parts of Bali. Modified Mercalli intensity V in Surabaya corresponded to the historical descriptions of the event. [9] On Lombok, the earthquake was felt VII.

Damage

The earthquake occurred at 22:00 local time. In Buleleng shaking was described as violent. A series of strong shocks followed and persisted for an hour. Shaking was felt in Bima, Surabaya, and Lombok. A massive "explosion" was observed along the coastal ranges. The explosion triggered a landslide which buried Singaraja and Buleleng, resulting in at least 10,253 fatalities. A large fissure was observed running through Lake Tamblingan, from Buleleng to Tabanan. It agitated the lake and caused flooding. [2] A destructive tsunami washed onto the Balinese coast, killing an additional 1,200 people. [3] [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

The 1938 Banda Sea earthquake occurred on February 2 at 04:04 local time with an estimated magnitude of 8.5-8.6 on the moment magnitude scale. Shaking was intense with an assigned Rossi–Forel intensity of VII and intensity of VI (Strong) on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale. This oblique-slip event generated a destructive tsunami of up to 1.5 metres in the Banda Sea region, but there were no deaths.

The 1992 Flores earthquake and tsunami occurred on 12 December on the island of Flores in Indonesia. With a magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), it was the largest and also the deadliest earthquake in 1992 and in the Lesser Sunda Islands region. The earthquake was caused by slip on the Flores Thrust fault. This fault dips to the south underneath Flores Island. The epicenters of most earthquakes on the Flores Thrust are on Flores Island.

The 1303 Crete earthquake occurred at about dawn on 8 August. It had an estimated magnitude of about 8, a maximum intensity of IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and triggered a major tsunami that caused severe damage and loss of life on Crete and at Alexandria. It badly damaged the Lighthouse of Alexandria.

The 1917 Bali earthquake occurred at 06:50 local time on 21 January. It had an estimated magnitude of 6.6 on the surface-wave magnitude scale and had a maximum perceived intensity of IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused widespread damage across Bali, particularly in the south of the island. It triggered many landslides, which caused 80% of the 1,500 casualties.

The 1901 Black Sea earthquakewas a 7.2 magnitude earthquake, the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the Black Sea. The earthquake epicenter was located in the east of Cape Kaliakra, 30 kilometres (19 mi) off northeast coast of Bulgaria. The mainshock occurred at a depth of 15 km (9.3 mi) and generated a 4–5-metre (13–16 ft) high tsunami that devastated the coastal areas of Romania and Bulgaria. In Romania, the earthquake was felt not only throughout Northern Dobruja, but also in Oltenia and Muntenia, and even in southern Moldova.

The 1979 Bali earthquake occurred at 03:58 local time on 18 December with a surface-wave magnitude of 6.3. The shock occurred southeast of the coast of Karangasem Regency in the Lombok Strait, and about 60 kilometres (37 mi) east-northeast of Denpasar. Up to 80 percent of the buildings in Karangasem Regency were damaged, between 15,000 and 500,000 people were displaced, and road links to the provincial capital of Denpasar were briefly severed.

The 1976 Bali earthquake occurred at 15:13 local time on 14 July with a surface-wave magnitude of 6.5. The shock occurred 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) south of the Bali Sea coast of the Buleleng Regency, and about 65 kilometres (40 mi) northwest of Denpasar. Up to ninety percent of houses in Buleleng Regency were seriously damaged or destroyed and the Seririt sub-district was almost completely destroyed, where a school building collapsed and trapped at least 200 students. 573 people are believed to have died; at least 544 in Buleleng Regency, 24 in Jembrana and 5 in Tabanan. Four thousand more suffered injuries and an estimated 450,000 were left temporarily homeless.

The Flores back-arc thrust fault is a major system of west–east trending thrust faults that extend eastwards from west of Lombok just south of where Sunda Shelf ends at Bali Sea, towards the islands of Sumbawa, Flores, and Alor, with a total length of at least 800 km., entering the Weber Basin and Aru Basin adjacent Sahul Shelf of the Australian plate. The thrust faults are south-dipping and lie within the back arc region of the Sunda–Banda Arc, which is related to the ongoing subduction of the Australian plate beneath the Sunda and Banda Sea plates. The thrust fault system developed as a result of the onset of continental collision as continental crust of the Australian plate reached the Sunda Trench. The eastern part of the fault system is also known as the Wetar thrust. Above the main thrust fault are a series of imbricate (overlapping) thrust faults. These imbricate thrust faults are shallower in depth than the main Flores thrust. Although the exact thrust faults have not been established, these faults were thought to be responsible for the 2018 Lombok earthquakes.

The western coast of West Sulawesi was struck by a major earthquake on 23 February 1969 at 00:36 UTC. It had a magnitude of 7.0 Mw and a maximum felt intensity of VIII on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale. It triggered a major tsunami that caused significant damage along the coast of the Makassar Strait. At least 64 people were killed, with possibly a further 600 deaths caused by the tsunami.

The 1761 Lisbon earthquake and its subsequent tsunami occurred in the north Atlantic Ocean and south of the Iberian Peninsula. This violent shock which struck just after noon on 31 March 1761, was felt across many parts of Western Europe and in Morocco. Its direct effects were observed even far north in Scotland and Amsterdam, and to the south in the Canary Islands of Spain. The estimated surface-wave magnitude 8.5 event was the largest in the region, and the most significant earthquake in Europe since the Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755.

The 1674 Ambon earthquake occurred on February 17 between 19:30 and 20:00 local time in the Maluku Islands. The resulting tsunami reached heights of up to 100 metres (330 ft) on Ambon Island killing over 2,000 individuals. It was the first detailed documentation of a tsunami in Indonesia and the largest ever recorded in the country. The exact fault which produced the earthquake has never been determined, but geologists postulate either a local fault, or a larger thrust fault offshore. The extreme tsunami was likely the result of a submarine landslide.

The Nemuro-Oki earthquake in scientific literature, occurred on June 17 at 12:55 local time. It struck with an epicenter just off the Nemuro Peninsula in northern Hokkaidō, Japan. It measured 7.8–7.9 on the moment magnitude scale (Mw ), 8.1 on the tsunami magnitude scale (Mt ) and 7.4 on the Japan Meteorological Agency magnitude scale (MJMA ).

The 1852 Banda Sea earthquake struck on 26 November at 07:40 local time, affecting coastal communities on the Banda Islands. It caused violent shaking lasting five minutes, and was assigned XI on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale in the Maluku Islands. A tsunami measuring up to 8 m (26 ft) slammed into the islands of Banda Neira, Saparua, Haruku and Ceram. The tsunami caused major damage, washing away many villages, ships and residents. At least 60 people were killed in the earthquake and tsunami. The earthquake had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.5 or 8.4–8.8, according to various academic studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Chignik earthquake</span> 7th largest earthquake in the US

An earthquake occurred off the coast of the Alaska Peninsula on July 28, 2021, at 10:15 p.m. local time. The large megathrust earthquake had a moment magnitude of 8.2 according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS). A tsunami warning was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) but later cancelled. The mainshock was followed by a number of aftershocks, including three that were of magnitude 5.9, 6.1 and 6.9 respectively.

The 2021 Bali earthquake struck at 04:18 local time (UTC+08:00) when people were still sleeping on 15 October 2021. It resulted in 4 deaths and 73 more injured, despite having a moment magnitude of 4.7.

The 1885 Kashmir earthquake, also known as the Baramulla earthquake occurred on 30 May in Srinagar. It had an estimated moment magnitude of Mw  6.3–6.8 and maximum Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale intensity of VIII (Damaging). At least 3,081 people died and severe damage resulted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1926 Padang Panjang earthquakes</span> Earthquakes in West Sumatra, Indonesia

West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies was struck by an earthquake doublet on June 28, 1926. The first earthquake occurred at 10:23 local time, with an estimated magnitude of 6.7 on the surface-wave magnitude scale with an intensity of IX (Violent) on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. Less than three hours later, a second earthquake occurred with a magnitude of 6.4 Ms  although it appears to have been less damaging. Three hundred and fifty-four people were killed during the first earthquake, with later shocks killing a total of 57 according to local records.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Flores earthquake</span> Earthquake in Indonesia

An earthquake occurred 112 km, offshore, north of Maumere in the Flores Sea on 14 December. The quake had a moment magnitude of 7.3 according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS). One person was killed and 173 others suffered injuries.

The 1843 Nias earthquake off the northern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia caused severe damage when it triggered a tsunami along the coastline. The earthquake with a moment magnitude (Mw ) of 7.8 lasted nine minutes, collapsing many homes in Sumatra and Nias. It was assigned a maximum modified Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1867 Java earthquake</span> Earthquake in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia)

The 1867 Central Java earthquake occurred on June 10 at between 04:20 and 04:30 local time. It struck off the southern coast of the Indonesian island with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.8 (Mw ). Widespread devastation occurred in Central Java, where as many as 700 people were killed. The intermediate-depth intraslab earthquake did not cause a tsunami.

References

  1. ↑ "Katalog Gempabumi Signifikan dan Dirasakan". Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency . Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  2. 1 2 "Significant Earthquake Information". ngdc.noaa.gov. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  3. 1 2 "Tsunami Event Information". ngdc.noaa.gov. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  4. 1 2 Pebriansyah Ariefana (1 June 2021). "Bali Tsunami dan Gempa Besar Tengah Malam November 1815, Hancurkan Kerajaan Buleleng" [Bali Tsunami and Great Earthquake Midnight November 1815, Destroyed the Buleleng Kingdom]. SuaraBali.id. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  5. ↑ Achmad F. N. Sarjan; Zulfakriza Zulfakriza; Andri D. Nugraha; Shindy Rosalia; Shengji Wei; Sri Widiyantoro; Phil R. Cummins; Muzli Muzl; David P. Sahara; Nanang T. Puspito; Awali Priyono; Haunan Afif (22 April 2021). Basilios, Tsikouras (ed.). "Delineation of Upper Crustal Structure Beneath the Island of Lombok, Indonesia, Using Ambient Seismic Noise Tomography" (PDF). Frontiers in Earth Science. 9: 269. Bibcode:2021FrEaS...9..269S. doi: 10.3389/feart.2021.560428 . Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  6. 1 2 3 Yang, Xiaodong; Singh, Satish C.; Tripathi, Anand (2020). "Did the Flores backarc thrust rupture offshore during the 2018 Lombok earthquake sequence in Indonesia?". Geophysical Journal International. 221 (2): 758–768. doi: 10.1093/gji/ggaa018 .
  7. ↑ Atika Syah (29 June 2018). "Brief History of Tsunami in Bali". factsofindonesia.com. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
  8. ↑ Felix, Raquel P.; Judith A., Hubbard; Kyle E., Bradley; Karen H., Lythgoe; Linlin, Li; Adam D., Switzer (2022). "Tsunami hazard in Lombok and Bali, Indonesia, due to the Flores back-arc thrust". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 22 (5): 1665–1682. Bibcode:2022NHESS..22.1665F. doi: 10.5194/nhess-22-1665-2022 . S2CID   248899725.
  9. ↑ Nguyen, Ngoc; Griffin, Jonathan; Cipta, Athanasius; Cummins, Phil R. (2015). Indonesia's Historical Earthquakes Modelled examples for improving the national hazard map (Report). Geoscience Australia. doi:10.11636/Record.2015.023.
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